1. Language as a Foundation for Reading Dr. Fiona Duff University of Oxford

2. The Importance of Reading Reading is the gateway to academic learning A significant minority fails to achieve sufficient levels of literacy – 15% of adults in England at/below 11-year-old level; 5% at 5- to 7-year-old level (Department for Business, Innovation and Skills, 2011) Dyslexia is associated with lower educational, employment and economic outcomes (Government Office for Science, 2008)

3. The Importance of Language Vital for expressing and encountering ideas, accessing the education system, and building relationships Language Impairment is associated with poorer educational and psychosocial outcomes (Conti-Ramsden et al., 2009; Snowling et al., 2006) Language is also important because it provides a foundation for reading

4. Components of Language Phonology Sounds Grammar Structure Pragmatics Use Semantics Meaning

5. Components of Language Phonology Sounds Grammar Structure Pragmatics Use Semantics Meaning

6. Components of Reading learning to read reading to learn Gough & Tunmer (1986) decoding × linguistic comprehension = reading comprehension

7. How Language and Reading Relate Causal theory: Development of reading builds on a foundation of spoken language

8. Levels of Evidence X and Y are related; direction of effects unknown Concurrent correlation Effects operate forwards in time: Cause (X) precedes effect (Y) Longitudinal evidence Random allocation to isolate training effect Train X and Y improves: X is causally related to Y Training studies

9. How Language and Reading Relate Muter et al. (2004): Longitudinal evidence from school-age children – 90 children tested in first term of formal schooling (4;09 years), and 1 and 2 years later – What skills early on in schooling predict later reading accuracy and comprehension?

10. Grammatical awareness Reading accuracy Receptive vocabulary Letter knowledge Phoneme awareness Age 5Age 6 Reading Muter et al. (2004)

11. Grammatical awareness Reading accuracy Receptive vocabulary Letter knowledge Phoneme awareness Reading accuracy.20.22.52 Age 5Age 6 Muter et al. (2004)

12. Grammatical awareness Reading accuracy Receptive vocabulary Letter knowledge Phoneme awareness Reading comprehension.21.16.56 Age 5Age 6 Muter et al. (2004)

13. How Language and Reading Relate Hulme et al. (2012): Evidence from an RCT – 20-week interventions for ‘at-risk’ 5-year-olds – Random allocation to intervention group: Phonology plus reading; oral language – P+R intervention improved word-level literacy more than OL intervention Entirely driven by growth in letter knowledge and phoneme awareness

14. How Language and Reading Relate Clarke et al. (2010): Evidence from an RCT – 20-week interventions for 9-year-old poor comprehenders – Random allocation to intervention group: Text comprehension; oral language; combined; waiting control – All interventions improved reading comprehension relative to waiting control Partially driven by growth in vocabulary

15. How Language and Reading Relate Phoneme awareness and letter knowledge as foundations for reading accuracy – Phonemes map onto letters; this mapping is critical for a phonic decoding approach to reading

16. How Language and Reading Relate Phoneme awareness and letter knowledge as foundations for reading accuracy – Phonemes map onto letters; this mapping is critical for a phonic decoding approach to reading Vocabulary and grammar as foundations for reading comprehension – Understanding the meaning of individual words (vocabulary) and how they relate (syntax) is essential for understanding the meaning of connected text

17. Reading and Language Good oral language leads to good reading – Phonological skills critical for reading accuracy – Nonphonological skills critical for reading comprehension Poor oral language leads to poor reading – Children with dyslexia have impairments in phonological aspects of language (Snowling et al., 2003) – Children who are poor comprehenders have impairments in semantic and grammatical aspects of language (Nation et al., 2004)

18. Reading and Language An obvious implication: – Poor oral language skills could be used to identify children at risk for reading difficulties, and candidates for preventative language intervention A critical question: – How early does language reliably predict reading?

19. Reading and Language An obvious implication: – Poor oral language skills could be used to identify children at risk for reading difficulties, and candidates for preventative language intervention A critical question: – How early does language reliably predict reading? A slight problem: – Infant vocabulary is not an especially reliable predictor even of later vocabulary

20. Infant Vocabulary Early Language in Victoria Study (Reilly et al., 2007, 2010) – Community sample of >1600 infants – Children classified as ‘late talkers’ at 24 months Lowest 10% for age on parent report of productive vocabulary (CDI)

21. Infant Vocabulary Generation R Study (Ghassabian et al., 2013; Henrichs et al., 2011) – Population-based cohort study of >2700 infants – Vocabulary measured by parent report at ages 18 months, 24 months; and by researchers at 6 years

22. Infant Vocabulary Lee (2011) – Assessed >1000 24-month-olds; followed up from 3 to 11 years

23. Infant Vocabulary “Expressive vocabulary at age 2 is… crucial to subsequent literacy development” (Lee, 2011, p. 83) “Research findings also are frequently over- interpreted… Significant statistical differences are equated with clinically meaningful differences” (Paul & Roth, 2011, p. 333) Carried out our own study in the UK context to critically evaluate statistical and practical significance

24. Learning to Read Project Followed 300 children from infancy (16-24 months) to school-age (4-9 years) In infancy, vocabulary measured with OCDI – Parental checklist of 416 words At school-age, measured vocabulary, phonological awareness and reading Research question: Does infant vocabulary predict language and reading outcomes?

25. Reading comprehension Vocabulary Reading accuracy Phonological awareness Vocabulary InfancySchool-age.40 (16%).21 (4%).33 (11%).43 (18%)

26. Learning to Read Project Infant vocabulary is a significant predictor of language and reading outcomes approximately 5 years later – Vocabulary a plausible antecedent of reading development However, it is not sufficiently reliable to be predictive at the individual level – Infant vocabulary only accounted for 16% of variance in later vocabulary – Indicates instability in language development pre-2 years – Fits with the observation that the majority of ‘late talkers’ catch up by school-age (Rescorla, 2011)

27. Learning to Read Project What might explain additional variance in outcomes? Family risk of reading/language difficulties −Better predictor of language outcomes at 4 years than ‘late talker’ status at 18 months (Bishop et al., 2012) −35% of our sample had a first-degree relative with reading/language difficulties

28. Reading comprehension Vocabulary Reading accuracy Phonological awareness Vocabulary InfancySchool-age.40 (16%).21 (4%).33 (11%).43 (18%)

29. Reading comprehension Vocabulary Reading accuracy Phonological awareness Vocabulary InfancySchool-age.38.18.28.38 Family risk -.09 -.15 -.32 -.34

30. Learning to Read Project Infant vocabulary and family risk together explain: −6% variance in phoneme awareness (cf. 4%) −16% variance in vocabulary (cf. 16%) −21% variance in reading accuracy (cf. 11%) −30% variance in reading comprehension (cf. 18%) Infant vocabulary combined with family risk increases prediction of reading outcomes −Infants with vocabulary delay and FR at greater risk for RD −Fits with findings from dyslexia FR studies: children with FR and weak pre-school vocabulary at greater risk for dyslexia (Scarborough, 1990)

31. Late Talking vs. Language Impairment How early can we reliably use language levels to identify risk for reading and language difficulties? Using parent report, even language status at 3 years doesn’t seem sufficiently reliable for predicting language outcomes (Dale & Hayiou-Thomas, 2013; Zambrana et al., 2014) Some evidence of better prediction of later vocabulary deficits from 4 years than 3 years (Dollagahan & Campbell, 2009)

32. Late Talking vs. Language Impairment Tracked progress of 18 children from 18 months to 4 years, then 8 years – At 18 months: 9 late talkers and 9 average talkers – At 4 years: 6 with specific language impairment and 12 with typical development Compared outcomes at 8 years

33. Late Talking vs. Language Impairment Outcome (norm average)Average Talker (SD)Late Talker (SD)d Receptive vocabulary (100)115.78 (7.92)115.78 (14.31)0.07 Expressive vocabulary (100)112.56 (7.65)107.11 (16.04)0.50 Nonword repetition (100)104.20 (29.58)104.60 (15.65)-0.25 Recalling sentences (10)9.67 (1.58)8.89 (1.62)0.40 Phonological elision (10)10.75 (2.71)11.25 (2.55)-0.21 Reading accuracy (100)108.33 (17.28)109.56 (15.56)-0.02 Reading comprehension (100)115.67 (6.40)110.44 (6.39)0.60 Nonverbal IQ (50)56.11 (5.11)55.44 (9.15)0.08

34. Late Talking vs. Language Impairment Outcome (norm average)Typical development (SD) Language impairment (SD) d Receptive vocabulary (100)119.17 (11.50)109.00 (7.38)1.04 Expressive vocabulary (100)116.42 (7.70)96.67 (9.46)2.30*** Nonword repetition (100)120.38 (7.50)81.75 (15.44)1.95** Recalling sentences (10)10.08 (1.08)7.67 (1.21)2.24*** Phonological elision (10)12.00 (2.14)8.67 (1.86)0.92 Reading accuracy (100)117.67 (8.16)91.50 (13.13)2.19*** Reading comprehension (100)115.75 (5.38)107.67 (6.28)1.71** Nonverbal IQ (50)57.92 (6.26)51.50 (7.56)0.94

35. Conclusions Good oral language is important in its own right It also provides a foundation for reading development Still unclear how early on language weaknesses can be used to identify risk of reading difficulty – Delayed vocabulary in infancy plus family history (amongst other risks) indicate particular risk – Language weaknesses at school entry especially problematic Important we encourage a broad and rich language environment at home and in schools

36. Acknowledgements Professor Kate Nation, University of Oxford Professor Kim Plunkett, University of Oxford Professor Dorothy Bishop, University of Oxford Gurpreet Reen, Royal Holloway University of London Julia Dilnot, University of Oxford Jane Ralph, University of Oxford