1. RNA and Protein Synthesis
Everything we talk about takes place in a eukayotic cell

2. Example RNA
SC.912.L.16.5 Explain the basic processes of transcription and translation, and how they result in the expression of genes.

3. Role of RNA How does RNA differ from DNA?
Watson and Crick solved the double helix structure of DNA
Ribonucleicacid (RNA) consists of a long chain of nucleotides

4. Watson and Crick

5. Comparing RNA and DNA
Each nucleotide in DNA is made of a 5 carbon sugar
The differences between RNA and Dna make it easy for enzymes to tell RNA and DNA apart
You can compare the different roles played in RNA and DNA molecules in directing the production of proteins to the Master plan and blueprints
Blueprints are the workk the master plan builds off of.

6. Differences The sugar in RNA is ribose instead of deoxyribose
RNA is generally single stranded and not double stranded
RNA contains uracil instead of thymine

7. Thymine has 3 hydrogen atoms and one carbon atom added on to this

8. Functions of RNA
Visualize an RNA molecule as a disposable copy of a segment of DNA
RNA molecules are involved in protein synthesis
RNA controls the assembly of amino acids into proteins
Each type of RNA molecule specializes in a different aspect of the job
mRNA, rRNA, and tRNA

9. Messenger RNA (tRNA)
Most genes contain instructions for assembling amino acids
The molecules that carry copies of the instructions are messenger RNA
Carry info from the DNA to other part of the cell

10. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Proteins are assembled on ribosomes
Ribosomes are small organelles composed of two subunits
The subunits are made up of several ribosomal RNA
Ribosomal RNA carry as much as 80 different proteins

11. Transfer RNA Used in building a protein
tRNA transfers each amino acid to the ribosome as it is specified by the coded messages in mRNA

12. RNA Synthesis How does the cell make RNA?
Cells invest large amounts of raw material and energy into making RNA molecules

13. Transcription Most of the work of RNA takes place here
In transcription, segments of DNA serve as templates to produce complementary RNA molecules
Base sequences of the transcribed RNA complement the base sequences of the template DNA

15. In prokaryotes RNA synthesis and protein synthesis take place in the cytoplasm
In eukaryotes, DNA is is in the nucleus
In eukaryotes the DNA moves to the cytoplasm from the nucleus to play a role in the production of protein
Transcription requires RNA polymerase

16. RNA polymerase binds separates the double helix of the DNA
It is possible for a single gene to produce hundreds or thousands of RNA molecules

17. Promoters RNA polymerase doesn’t bind on DNA anywhere
It binds to promoters
Promoters are regions of DNA that have specific base sequences
Promoters are signals in the DNA molecule that show RNA polymerase exactly where to begin making RNA

19. RNA Editing
RNA molecules sometimes require a bit of editing before they are ready to be read.
Pre-mRNA molecules have bits and pieces cut out of them before they can go into action
The portions dicarded are called introns
The portions kept are exons

20. Introns are taken out of pre-mRNA molecules while they are still in the nucleus
Exons are spliced together to form the final mRNA
Polypeptide chains are the formation

21. Example 13.2- Ribosomes and Protein Synthesis
SC.912.L.16.9 Explain how and why the genetic code is universal and is common to almost all organisms

22. The Genetic Code What I the genetic code, and how is it read?
First step in decoding genetic messages is to transcribe a nucleotide base sequence from DNA to RNA.
The info contains a code for making proteins

23. As many as 20 different amino acids are found in polypeptides
What determines the properties of different proteins is the order in which the specific amino acids in polypeptides are joined.
RNA contains Adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil
G-C and A-U

24. The genetic code is read three “letters” at a time, s that each “word” is three bases long and corresponds to a single amino acid.
Each thee letter word is known as a codon.

26. How to Read Codons
There are 64 possible three base codons

28. Start and Stop Codons The genetic code uses punctuation marks
The methionine codon AUG serves as a start codon for protein synthesis
After that the sequence continues until it reaches a stop codon

29. Translation What role does ribosomes play in assembling proteins?
The sequence of nucleotide bases in mRNA molecule is a set of instructions that gives the order in which amino acid should be joined to produce a polypeptide.
Once the polypeptide is complete, it folds into it final shape or joins with other polypeptides to become a functional protein.

30. The ribosome basically reads and assembles
Ribosomes use the sequence of codons in mRNA to assemble amino acids into polypeptide chains
Translation is the decoding of an mRNA message into a proten

32. Steps in Translation
Messenger RNA iss transcribe in the nucleus and enters the cytoplasm
tRNA- Translation begins at AUG (the start codon)
As each codon passes through the ribosome, tRNA’s bring the proper amino aids into the ribosome.
The ribosome then joins two amino acids to a growing chain (polypeptide chain)

33. tRNA

35. The ribosomes bind methionine and phenylalanine, the anticodon is UAC, which pairs with the methionine codon, AUG.
The bond between methionine and tRNA breaks away.
The process continues until the ribosome reaches one of the three stop codons.

36. The Molecular Basis of Heredity
What is the “central dogma” of molecular biology?
Most genes contain nothin more than instructions for assembling proteins
Proteins have everything to do with traits such as shape of a leaf, color of a flower, the sex of a newborn baby, etc.
Proteins catalyze and regulate chemical reactions

37. A gene that codes for an enzyme to produce pigment can control the color of a flower.
Also produces proteins that regulate patterns of tissue growth in a leaf
Also trigger the male or female development in an embryo
Pretty much, proteins are microscopic tools, each specifically designed to build or operate a component in a living cell.

39. With the genetic code in hand, a new scientific field called molecular biology was established.
The central dogma of molecular biology is that information is transferred from DNA to RNA to protein.

40. Example 13.3 Mutations
SC.912.L.16.4 Explain how mutations in the DNA sequence may or may not result in phenotypic change. Explain how mutations in gametes may result in phenotypic changes in offspring.

41. Types of Mutations What are mutations?
Mutations are the change of genetic material in a cell
Mutations come in many forms
The two categories of mutations are the those that produce changes in single gene which are known as gene mutations. Also those that produce changes in a whole chromosome which are known as chromosomal mutations.

43. Gene Mutations
Gene mutations that involve mutations in one or a few nucleotides are known as point mutations.
Point mutations occur at a single point in the DNA sequence
Point mutations include substitutions, insertions, and deletions
Occur during replication

44. Substitutions One base is changed to a different base
Affect only a single amino acid
Sometimes have no effect at all
Ex: if a mutation changed one codon of mRNA from CCC to CCA, the codon will still specify the amino acid proline

45. Insertions and Deletions
Point mutations in which one base is inserted pr removed from the DNA sequence
Effects can be dramatic
Also called frame shift mutations

46. Chromosomal Mutations
Involve changes in the number or structure of chromosomes
Can change the location of genes on chromosomes and can even change the number of copies of some genes.

48. Effects of Mutations How do mutations affect genes?
Genetic material can be altered by natural events or by artificial means,
Resulting mutations that affect individual organisms can also affect a species or even an entire ecosystem
Mutations are produced by errors in genetic process

50. Mutagens Chemical or physical aents in the environment
Lead to some mutations
Chemical mutagions: pesticide, few natural plant alkaloids, tobaccoo smoke, and environmental pollutants
Physical: forms of electromagnetic radiation, such as x-rays and UV light

51. Harmful and Helpful Mutations
The effects of mutations on genes vary widely. Some have little to no effect; and some produce beneficial variations. Some negatively disrupt gen function.
Many if not most mutations are neutral
Whether a mutation is negative or beneficial depends on how its DNA changes relative to the organisms situation.
Without mutations, organisms couldn't’t evolve

52. Harmful effects
Some of the most harmful are those that change protein structures or gene activity.
The defective proteins produced by these mutations can disrupt normal biological activities
Cancers can produce
Sickle cell disease

53. Beneficial effects
Mutations often produce proteins with new or altered functions that can be useful to organisms in different or changing environment
Insects build immunity to the pesticides. Good for them; bad for us
When a complete set of chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis, the gametes that result may produce triploid or tetraploid organisms.
Condition where there is an extra set of chromosome is called polyploidy. They are generally larger

54. Example 13.4 Gene regulation and Expression
SC.912.L.16.5 Explain the basic processes of transcription and translation and how they result in the expression of genes.

55. Prokaryotic Gene Regulation
How are prokaryotic genes regulated?
To conserve energy and resources, prokaryotes regulate their activities, using only those genes necessary for the cell to function.
By regulating gene expression, bacteria can respond to changes in the environment
DNA-binding proteins in prokaryotes regulate genes by controlling transcription.

56. The key to gene transcription in bacteria is the organization of genes into operons
The genes in operons usually have related functions