1. Approaches and Basic measurement in Epidemiology

2. Epidemiological approach to problem of health and disease is based on 2 major foundations
asking questions
making comparison

3. asking questions Health related events -what is the event/problem?
-what is its magnitude?
-where did it happen?
-when did it happen?
-who are affected?
-why did it happen?

4. asking question Related to health action
-what can be done to reduce the problem and its consequences?
-How can it be prevented in future?
-what action should be taken by health sectors/other sectors/community?
-what resources are required? what are the activities to be organized?
-what difficulties may arise and how might they be overcome?
Answer to the above questions may provide clues to disease etiology and help to guide planning and evaluation

5. Making comparison
making comparison and drawing inferences is another approach
-comparison may be between two or more groups
-finding out any crucial differences in the host and environmental factors between those effected and not effected
-clues to aetiology from such comparison
For comparison we need measurement

6. “If you can measure that of which you speak, and can express it by a number, you know something of your subject, but if you can not measure it, your knowledge is meager and unsatisfactory.” —Lord Kelvin (1824–1907)

7. Scales of measurement or Level of measurement

8. Measurement
Involves measuring an attribute or property of a person, object or event according to a particular set of rules
The measurement process results in a number
There must be a rigorous set of rules for assigning numbers to the objects being measured
Through the measurement process, we transform data into information

9. Quantification
An important first-step in measurement is determining whether a variable is discrete or continuous.
Why? This determines how we quantify or measure the variable.
Variable: A feature for which people differ.
Height: some people are shorter than others
Age: some people are older than others

10. Scales of measurement
To properly assign numbers one must understand the scales of measurement
The scale determines the amount of information contained in the data.
Understanding the scales of measurement results in the appropriate selection of graphic techniques and procedures for data analysis

11. Scales of measurement
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

12. Nominal scale
Labels or names used to identify an attribute of the element.
A nonnumeric label or a numeric code may be used.
Examples:
country of origin
biological sex (male or female)
animal or non-animal
married vs single

13. Nominal scale
Sometimes numbers are used to designate category membership
Example:
Country of Origin
1 = United States 3 = Canada
2 = Mexico 4 = Nepal
However, in this case, it is important to keep in mind that the numbers do not have intrinsic meaning

14. Ordinal
The data have the properties of nominal data and the order or rank of the data is meaningful.
A nonnumeric label or a numeric code may be used.
Categories are ordered, but not numeric; intervals between categories are not equal

15. Ordinal Designates an ordering
Does not assume that the intervals between numbers are equal
Example 1:
finishing place in a race (first place, second place)
1st place
2nd place
3rd place
4th place
1 hour 2 hours 3 hours 4 hours 5 hours 6 hours 7 hours 8 hours

16. Ordinal Example 2: Ordinal scales — have some order
Class Rank Patient Condition
1. Freshman 1. Mild
2. Sophomore 2. Moderate
3. Junior Severe
4. Senior Critical

17. Interval
The data have the properties of ordinal data and the interval between observations is expressed in terms of a fixed unit of measure but lack a real zero point (numerical)
Its most important characteristic is that the intervals between successive values are equal
The zero point on this scale is arbitrary.
Calendar time
Temperature

18. Interval Example: Common IQ tests
The difference between someone with a score is 120 and someone with a score of 100 is the same as the difference between people with scores of 80 and 60 (i.e., 20 points)

19. Ratio scale
The data have all the properties of interval data and the ratio of two values is meaningful.
Designates an equal-interval ordering with a true zero point (i.e., the zero implies an absence of the thing being measured)
Variables such as distance, height, weight, use the ratio scale.

20. Ratio scale Example: height, weight,
Ram is 3.3 ft tall, Shyam is 6.6 feet tall,
Shyam is twice as tall as Ram.

21. Tools of measurement Basic tools of measurement in epidemiology are
-Ratios
-Proportions and
-Rates
Absolute number conveys no meaning to an epidemiologist who is interested in comparing the frequency of events. So, these are necessary.

22. Rate
Rate: Rate is an instantaneous change in one quantity per unit change in another quantity, where the latter is usually a time
where, a = number of times an event has occurred in a specific interval of time
a+b = number of persons exposed to risk of the event during the
same interval (a is a portion of a+b)
k = some round number (100 or 1,000 etc.) or base, depending upon
the relative magnitude of a and a+b

23. Characteristics of rate
a. It has unit of measurement (with dimension) i.e. time.
b. It has no finite bound. Theoretically, a rate can approach infinity.

24. x= number of events or items counted and not necessarily
Ratio: A ratio is the expression of the relationship between a numerator and denominator, which may involve either an interval in time or may be instantaneous change in time
x= number of events or items counted and not necessarily
a portion of y
y= number of events or items counted

25. There are two kinds of ratio:
a. One that has dimension (unit of measurement) e.g. number of hospital beds per 100, 000 persons in population, number of infant deaths in population during one year per 1000 live births
b. One that is dimensionless (has no unit of measurement) e.g. by dividing one proportion or rate to another

26. Proportion: A proportion is an expression in which the numerator is always included in the denominator and the base is equal to 100.
Characteristics of proportion
a. It is dimensionless (no unit of measurement). Since numerator and denominator have the same dimension, any dimensional contents are cancelled out
b. The value ranges between 0 and 1 (0.0< p <1.0)

27. Ratio express a relation in size between 2 random quantities
Numerator is not a component of denominator
result of dividing one quantity by another
expressed in the form of x y or x/y
example sex ratio, doctor population ratio,

28. Proportion
indicates the relation in magnitude between a part and the whole
the numerator is always included in the denominator
usually expressed as a percentage
proportion of EP cases out of total TB cases EP/Total TB*100 N%

29. Rate
a rate measures the occurence of some particular event in a population during a given time period
It is a statement of the risk of a developing a condition
A rate comprises 4 elements
-numerator
-denominator
-time specification specially a calendar year and
-multiplier to express per 100,1000,or other round figure
example : death rate= no. of death in one year X1000/mid yr pop
For ensuring national and international comparibility , it is very necessary to have a uniform and standardized system of recording and classifying disease and death.

30. Thank You