2. Carbon Compounds

3. Why is carbon the basis for life? It has 4 electrons in its outer (valence) electron shell. Octet rule: The most stable elements have 8 electrons in its outer shell, with few exceptions. Carbon forms 4 covalent bonds to fulfill the octet rule. Therefore, Carbon is really good at forming rings and chains

4. MethaneAcetyleneButadieneBenzeneIsooctane Section 2-3 Some Carbon Compounds

5. Organic compounds Always contain carbon (carbon can bond with many other elements) Small units called monomers join together to form polymers

6. Making polymers Think of molecules as “mers” When 2 monomers join, they form dimers. Adding more monomers form polymers.  1 “mer” = monomer  2 “mers” (mer+mer) = dimer  3 or more “mers” (mer+mer+mer+mer) = polymer

7. 4 Important carbon polymers & complex molecules 1.Carbohydrates 2.Proteins 3.Lipids 4.Nucleic acids

8. Dehydration synthesis - Joining monomers into polymers while taking away water molecules A-OH + B-H  AB + H 2 O Dehydrate – to take away water Synthesis – to make

9. Carbohydrates – sugars, starch, cellulose, chitin Function: quick energy (4 calories per gram) Building blocks: Monosaccharides or simple sugars like glucose C 6 H 12 O 6 Carbohydrates provide cellular energy Cell Membrane functions and support Examples: – Monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, etc) – Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose, etc) – Polysaccharides (starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin)

10. Starch Glucose Section 2-3 Starch

11. Proteins – used for structure and function Purpose: can be used for energy (4 calories per gram) but mostly used for cell structure and function Building blocks: amino acids (20) held together by peptide bonds Sometimes very large, complex molecules

12. General structureAlanineSerine Section 2-3 Amino groupCarboxyl group Amino Acids

13. ATP Synthase

14. Antibodies Hormones Hemoglobin Enzymes Muscle fibers

15. Enzymes - Functional proteins in your body “Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts and control chemical reactions”. Enzymes are usually named with –ase ending. Ex: Peptidase in the stomach breaks down peptide bonds (proteins) Substrates are the molecules enzymes act upon (Ex: proteins or disaccharides) Enzymes are catalysts = speeds up reactions

16. “ose” for sugars “ase” for enzymes What would you call the enzyme that breaks down sucrose? What would you call the enzyme that breaks down lactose? What would you call the enzyme that breaks down maltose?

17. How enzymes work on reactants (substrates) Label the diagram in your notes.

18. Two laws of thermodynamics 1 st law of thermodynamics: conservation of energy. Energy is neither lost nor gained but just changes from one form to another. 2 nd law of thermodynamics: entropy – Tendency to move from order to disorder.

19. Conservation of energy Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. Energy can only be changed from one form to another.

20. Entropy: disorder For living beings or just molecules to be organized, there must be a lot of energy. Very little energy is needed to create disorder.

21. A  B + C Breaking down a reactant (A) into products (B and C) Requires little energy to start breaking down substances Exergonic reaction – releases energy

22. A + B  C Making a product (C) from reactants (A and B) Requires much energy to start this reaction – Why? Endergonic reaction – absorbs energy

23. Energy graphs

24. Activation energy Activation energy: how much energy is required to start a reaction

25. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=- vgkvUxxZFg&feature=related http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=- vgkvUxxZFg&feature=related http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id= 50144 http://www.britishpathe.com/record.php?id= 50144

26. Activation energy on two types of reactions Energy-Absorbing Reaction Energy-Releasing Reaction Products Activation energy Activation energy Reactants

27. Graph of Energy of a reaction Which graph is Endergonic? Which graph is Exergonic?

28. Enzyme action Enzymes: special proteins that help to reduce the activation energy (E a ) What will enzymes do to the speed (rate) of a reaction?

29. Effects of Enzymes Reaction pathway without enzyme Activation energy without enzyme Activation energy with enzyme Reaction pathway with enzyme Reactants Products

30. How do enzymes help with the activation energy required for metabolic processes?

31. Enzymes and Metabolism Enzymes facilitate the metabolic processes (chemical reactions) to sustain life. Enzymes help to maintain homeostasis. Enzymes help to build cells. Enzymes help in reproduction.

32. Glucose Substrates ATP Substrates bind to enzyme Substrates are converted into products Enzyme-substrate complex Enzyme (hexokinase) ADP Products Glucose-6- phosphate Products are released Section 2-4 Figure 2-21 Enzyme Action Active site Enzyme activity (4)

33. Proteins can be Denatured Denature – “destroying the nature or the shape” – changes the Secondary, Tertiary or Quaternary structure of a protein. Salts, Heat and pH changes affect proteins (polypeptides) and may denature them.

34. In living cells, biological pathways are NOT a one step process What would happen in this process if enzyme 2 was denatured? A B C D E

35. Lipids – fats, oils, waxes, sterols Function: long term stored energy (9 calories per gram) Provides insulation & cushioning Building blocks: 1 glycerol & 3 fatty acids Examples: – Saturated (animal fats) – Unsaturated (plant oils) – phospholipids are the basic structure of cell membranes. – Steroids are signal chemicals to initiate a process in the body

36. Examples of Sterols cholesterol steroids estrogen testosterone Click on the testosterone molecule

37. Lipid Structure

39. Some examples of lipids

40. Lipids are a vital component of cell membranes

41. Nucleic acids Functions: store & translate hereditary information. Building blocks: Monomers of nucleotides (sugar, phosphate, base) Examples: – DNA (stores code) – RNA (translates code to protein)

42. Parts of a Nucelotide Phosphate Sugar Nitrogen containing Base

43. What does DNA do? DNA does NOT govern cell activity directly!! “DNA is the code for the making of proteins used for structure and function”.

44. The 4 Bases found in DNA

45. The 4 Bases found in DNA as Nucleotides

46. DNA Structure

47. Base Pairing in DNA A ↔ T C ↔ G

48. How does the decoding work? The ATC’s & G’s of the DNA are transcribed into an RNA code then read in groups of 3 letters. DNA: TAC,GCT,CCC,TCT,AAT,ATC,CTG RNA: AUG,CGA,GGG,AGA,UUA,UAG,GAC Ribosomes read AUG – CGA – GGG – AGA – UUA – UAG – GAC. Each 3 nucleotide “word” is called a codon.

49. Ribosomes use this decoding scheme to determine how to build the appropriate protein.

50. DNA Polypeptide= protein Amino acids

51. Organic MacroMolecule Foldable 1.Name of macromolecule group – Water, Vitamins & Minerals, Lipids, – Nucleic Acids, Proteins, Carbohydrates 2.Types of molecules in the group (ex, sugars, starches, cellulose, chitin) 3.Monomer used as building blocks (built from monosaccharides) 4.Examples of the polymers Simple sugars, honey, pasta, potato, rice, grains) 5.Pictures/examples (3) of food sources that provide the building blocks to our bodies.

52. Organic macromolecule Monomer (building block) Polymer (Types) Carbohydrates 4 calories per gram Monosaccharide (ex: Glucose) Polysaccharides (ex: sugars, starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin, etc.) Proteins 4 calories per gram Amino acidsStructural proteins and enzymes Lipids 9 calories per gram Glycerol and fatty acids Fats, oils, waxes, sterols Nucleic acids Heredity information NucleotidesDNA, RNA