1. Solids and Liquids
NHS Physics

2. Classifying Materials
Humans have been analyzing and classifying materials since the stone age.
Let’s start with Solids:
Why bother analyzing materials with any more detail than classifying it as a solid?

3. Solids: Crystal Structure
Crystals are geometric shapes found within many minerals and other solids
Atoms in a crystal structure have an ordered pattern
Each point on the lattice represents an atom

4. Crystal Structure Iron, Copper and gold have simple crystal structures
Tin and cobalt are a little more complex
The crystal structure of a mineral can determine properties of a material and how likely it is to bond with other materials.

5. Properties of Solids: Density
Density is a measure of how much mass is packed into a certain volume of material.
Density = Mass/Volume
Decreasing the volume of an object (leaving mass the same) will increase its density.
Increasing the volume of an object (leaving mass the same) will decrease its density.

6. Why is Density Important?
Think of few examples (could be historical) for how density can be used in real world applications.

7. Practice!
D = M/V
Find the density of a block 2m x 2m x 1m that has a mass of 20kg.

8. Practice
D = M/V
You have a graduated cylinder with 25mL of water in it. If you drop a mineral into the graduated cylinder, the volume rises to 32mL. If the mineral weighs 0.2kg, what is the density?

9. Practice!
D = M/V
If you have 2000g of cake batter squeezed into a 10cm x 10cm x 10cm cubic container for storage and delivery, what is the density of the batter?

10. Practice!
D = M/V
When the same batter is baked, it rises in height by 10 cm. What is the new density?
What would the density be if each linear dimension (length, width and height) doubled from the original batter dimensions?

11. Practice!
D = M/V
A radiologist is choosing between two aprons for protecting patients from radiation. Apron X contains a lead alloy with a density of g/cm3. Apron Y is more cost effective, but has a lead alloy with a density of 11.3 g/cm3. If the apron is 50 cm x 30 cm x 1.5 cm, and can weigh no more than 25kg, which apron should he order?

12. Properties of Solids: Specific Gravity
Specific Gravity: The ratio of the mass of a substance to the mass of an equal amount of water.
Also called relative density
Sometimes used in calculations for horsepower of engines, or in calculations for hydraulic pumps

13. Properties of Solids: Specific Gravity
Water has a specific gravity of 1.
Substances with a higher specific gravity than 1 will sink in water
Substances with a lower specific gravity than 1 will float in water
E.g. Rubbing Alcohol has a specific gravity of 0.789, so it is times as dense as water.

14. Practice
You have a beaker of water with a mass of 50 grams. What is the specific gravity of a liquid of equal volume, but a mass of 0.25kg?

15. Properties of Solids: Elasticity
Elasticity is a measure of how likely an object is to deform, and return to its original state.
Objects deform when a “deforming force” acts on it that causes a change in shape.

16. Properties of Solids: Elasticity
If an object is inelastic, it does not go back to its original shape when deformed.
Clay, putty and even lead are considered inelastic

17. Hooke’s Law F = -kx In springs, elasticity is measured by Hooke’s law
Hooke’s Law states that the amount of displacement of a spring is directly proportional to the applied force.
F =
k =
x =
F = -kx

18. Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s law is only true until an object reaches its elastic limit, or yield.
Elastic limit is the distance where permanent distortion occurs.

19. Hooke’s Law
The elastic limit is used when designing consumer products.
As long as a material doesn’t exceed this limit, it can be cycled again and again without permanently deforming.
E.g. Remote control battery covers

20. Practice Felastic = -kx
Find the spring constant for a pogo stick if a 75kg Physics student compresses the spring by 12cm when standing on it.

21. Properties of Solids: Compression and Tension
Compression: When an object is squeezed together
Tension: When an object is stretched apart

22. Properties of Solids: Compression and Tension
When a beam is under stress, there are areas of tension, and areas of compression.
The center part of the beam is neutral and experiences much less stress than the top and bottom surface of the beam.

23. Properties of Solids: Compression and Tension
Why use I-Beams in construction?

24. Scaling The ant and the elephant…
As the size of something increases, it gets heavier much faster than it gets stronger
Multiplying the linear dimensions of an object by a factor, will increase the volume by a cube of that factor.

25. Scaling
Since strength is determined by cross sectional area, and mass is determined by volume and density, objects grow more massive at a faster rate than they grow stronger if scaled up.

26. Scaling Surface Area vs. Volume
When scaled, both surface area and volume increase, but volume increases at a faster rate
This means that the ratio of surface area to volume decreases.
Smaller objects have more surface area per kg

27. Quiz Tomorrow! 10-15 minutes Density Calculations
Hooke’s Law Calculations
Compression and Tension of a beam

28. Liquids
About 70% of the earth is covered with water, and it is necessary for life
Other liquids are used as cleaners, hydraulic fluids for heavy machinery or lubricants

29. Liquids
Liquids take the shape of whatever container they are placed in
The molecules in a liquid are packed tighter together than in a gas, but not as tight as a solid so the molecules are free to slide past one another.
We will discuss pressure, buoyancy, Archimedes’ principle and Pascal’s principle

30. Pressure
Pressure on a surface is calculated using
P = F/A

31. Pressure
If you have equal volumes of 2 different liquids, what determines how much pressure it exerts at the bottom of the container?

32. Pressure P = ρgh Pressure due to liquid = weight density x depth OR
Pressure due to liquid = mass density x gravity x depth
Turn to p. 274 and read the text at the bottom of the page for discussion.
P = ρgh

33. Pressure
For a given depth, liquid will exert the same pressure on the bottom and sides of its container.

34. Pressure
Total Pressure: When you consider not only the pressure from the liquid, but also the atmospheric pressure.
E.g.: If you fill up a fish tank, the total pressure on the glass is not only from the water, but from the atmospheric pressure pushing in the opposite direction

35. Pressure
Pressure does not depend on the amount of the liquid, only the density and depth.
E.g.: The water pressure 1 meter below the surface of a small pond, and 1 meter below a large lake is the same.

36. Practice!
P = ρgh
Calculate the pressure in N/m2 of the NHS pool at a depth of 10ft (3.048 meters).
ρ = 1,000 kg/m3
g =
h =

37. Practice!
P = ρgh
In March of 2012, after 2 hours and 36 minutes of descent, James Cameron was the first human to reach the depths of the Mariana Trench, at a depth of 11km. The density of sea water is 1,030kg/m3.
Find the pressure in N/m2 at that depth.
2) Find the force on a 0.5m x 0.5m section of the research vessel.

38. Challenger

39. Buoyancy Introduction
Buoyancy is the apparent loss of weight of objects when submerged in a liquid.
Since pressure, and therefore forces, from the water are higher at greater depth, the upward force on an object from the water is greater than the downward force from the water.

40. Archimedes
Born in 287 BC
Greek physicist, mathematician, inventor, engineer and astronomer.
Determined exact value for pi
Discovered the relationship between displaced fluid and buoyancy.

41. Archimedes Principle Fb = ρVg
Archimedes Principle: An immersed object is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaces
Fb = ρVg
Fb = Buoyant Force
ρ = Density of fluid
g = acceleration due to gravity

42. Fb = ρVg
Buoyancy
Since the amount of displaced water determines the buoyant force, larger objects have larger buoyant forces.
Whether an object will sink or float depends on its weight (downward force) and buoyant force (upward force).

43. Buoyancy
A floating object displaces a weight of fluid equal to it’s own weight
A submerged object displaces a volume of fluid equal to it’s own volume.

44. Buoyancy Fb = ρVg Objects Density < Fluids Density = Object Floats
Objects Density > Fluids Density = Object Sinks
Objects Density = Fluid’s Density: doesn’t sink or float

45. Practice!
Fb = ρVg
Calculate the Buoyant Force on a boat floating on the surface if the boat weighs 200kg.

46. Practice!
Fb = ρVg
Calculate the Volume of water the boat displaces.

47. Practice!
Fb = ρVg
During Physical Therapy, Mr. Stickman is lifting weights in a pool to reduce stress on his joints. If he has a disc shaped weight with a volume of 0.05m3 and a mass of 30kg, how much force does he need to apply:
To lift the mass above his head (out of the water)
To lift the mass while it is underwater

48. Practice!
Given a triple beam balance, a metal block, a cup of water and a beaker, how could you calculate the apparent weight (the weight of the block while submerged) for the block at your table?
Hint: There are a couple of ways to do this!!!

49. Possible Answers Fb = ρVg
Find the mass of water that spills out when the block is dropped in. The mass times gravity will equal Fb. Use the TBB to find the mass of the block.
Record the volume of the liquid that spills out and use it to calculate Fb
Put the mass in the water while on a TBB.

50. Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s Principle states that changes in pressure at any point in an enclosed fluid at rest are transmitted undiminished to all points in the fluid and act in all directions.

51. Pascal’s Principle In Physics, you don’t get anything for free.
Transferring a force from a small area to a large area will give you a larger output force, but smaller displacement.

52. Pascal’s Principle
Pascal’s Principle is applied to hydraulic lifts in auto repair shops and car jacks
Also applies to heavy machinery that needs to be able to lift heavy loads

53. Example
If you apply a force of 1N to an area of 0.1m2, that will transmit a Pressure of 10N/m2 to the fluid.
If the larger piston has an area of 0.5m2, then the force on this piston will be 5N

54. Useful Equations for Pascal’s Principle
Because pressure is transmitted equally from side 1 to side 2
P1 = P2 1 2
F1/A1 = F2/A2
Because the volume of fluid displaced is transmitted equally from side 1 to side 2
V1 = V2
A1D1 = A2D2
A = Area
D = Distance Moved

55. Practice!
F1/A1 = F2/A2
A1D1 = A2D2
Side 1 of a hydraulic lift has a cylinder diameter of 2cm, Side 2 has a diameter of 8cm. If you apply a force of 5N to Side 1, what is the output force on Side 2? 1 2

56. Practice! How far does side 2 move if side 1 is pushed down 10cm?
F1/A1 = F2/A2
A1D1 = A2D2
How far does side 2 move if side 1 is pushed down 10cm?
Side 1 Diameter =
Side 2 Diameter = 1 2