1. Introduction to Carbohydrates

2. importance of carbohydrates Carbohydrates are initially synthesized in plants by photosynthesis. important for Carbohydrates are important for: Provide energy 1- Provide energy through metabolism pathways and cycles Store energy 2- Store energy in the form of: starch (in plants) glycogen (in animals and humans) Supply carbon 3- Supply carbon for synthesis of other compounds. Form structural components 4- Form structural components in cells and tissues.

3. carbohydrates ? What are carbohydrates ? Carbohydrates are hydrocarbon molecules (Carbon & Hydrogen) that are classified classified into: 1-monosaccharidesnot 1-monosaccharides: can not be hydrolysed 2-disaccharides two 2-disaccharides : on hydrolysis give two monosaccharides 3-oligosaccharides3-10 3-oligosaccharides: on hydrolysis give 3-10 monosccharides 4-polysaccharides10 or more 4-polysaccharides: on hydrolysis give 10 or more monosaccharides 5-complex sugarsand 5-complex sugars: on hydrolysis give a sugar molecule and non-sugar molecule

4. monosaccharide What is a monosaccharide? (C-H 2- 0) n Simplest carbohydrate molecule is a monosaccharide : (C-H 2- 0) n Monosaccharides carbons - have 3 to 7 carbons aldehyde - have either aldehyde group (aldose) or ketone group (ketose) OH - have hydroxyl (OH) groups on every carbon (except carbonyl carbon) Polyhydroxyaldehydes or Polyhydroxyketones ALDOSEsKETOSEs ALDOSEs KETOSEs

5. classified according to number of carbon atoms (3 -7 carbon atomes) & presence of aldehyde or ketone groups & presence of aldehyde or ketone groups Trioses three Trioses : with three carbons e.g. Glyceraldhyde (aldotriose) & Dihydroxyacetone (ketotriose) Tetrosesfour Tetroses: with four carbons e.g. Erythrose (aldotetrose) Erythulose (ketotetrose) Pentosesfive Pentoses: with five carbons e.g Ribose (aldopentose) & Ribulose (ketopentose) Hexoses six Hexoses : with six carbons e.g. Glucose (aldohexose) Galactose (aldohexose) Mannose (aldohexose) & Fructose (ketohexose) classification classification of monosaccharides

6. isomers & epimers in monosaccharides isomers: Compounds that have the same chemical formula but with different structures For example fructose, glucose, mannose and galactose are all isomers of each other having the same chemical formula C 6 H 12 O 6 epimers: Carbohydrate isomers that differ in configuration around only specific carbon atom (with the exception of carbonyl carbon) are defined as epimers of each other For example: glucose and galactose are C-4 epimers as their structures differ only in the position of –OH at carbon 4 Glucose and mannose are C-2 epimers N.B. glucose and fructose are isomers BUT NOT epimers ALL EPIMERS ARE ISOMERS BUT NOT ALL ISOMERS ARE EPIMERS

7. enantiomers in monosaccharides - A special form of isomerism is found in pairs of structure that are mirror images of each other. enantiomers These mirror images are called enantiomers & the two members of the pair are designated as a D- or L- sugar D sugars - Most sugars are D sugars D- isomeric forms -In the D- isomeric forms, -OH group on the assymetric carbon (a carbon linked to four different atoms) farthest from the carbonyl carbon is on the L-isomeric forms right, while in the L-isomeric forms, it is on the left. racemases -Enzymes known as racemases are able to interconvert D- & L- sugars (D- to L & L- to D-)

8. cyclization of monosaccharides open-chain (acyclic) Less than 1% of monosaccharides with five or more carbons exist in the open-chain (acyclic) form. ring (cyclic) form The majority are predominantly found in a ring (cyclic) form in which the aldehyde or ketone group reacts with –OH group on the same sugar. Anomeric carbon: cyclization creates an anomeric carbon (the former carbonyl carbon) generating the a- and b- configuration of the sugar  - D-glucose &  D-glucose For example :  - D-glucose &  D-glucose These two sugars are glucose but are anomers to each other Modified Fischer projection formula: In  - configuration the, the –OH on the anomeric carbon projects to the same side of the ring Hawroth projection formula : trans different In  - configuration, -OH of anomeric carbon is trans to CH2OH group (different) cis same &  - configuration, -OH of anomeric carbon is cis to CH2OH (same)

9. Modified Fischer Projection Formula Carbon number 1 (anomeric carbon) Carbon number 5

10. O C C C C C H CH2OH Carbon number 1 Carbon number 1 (anomeric carbon ) Carbon number 5  - D - glucose trans Hawroth Projection Formula Carbon number 6 2 3 4 5 1 6 OH

11. O C C C C C OH H CH2OH Carbon number 1 Carbon number 1 (anomeric carbon ) Carbon number 5  - D - glucose cis Hawroth Projection Formula Carbon number 6 2 3 4 5 1 6

12. Dissacharides, oligo- & polysaccharides Monosaccharides can be joined by glycosidic bonds to form disaccharides (two units) oligosaccharides (3-10 units) oligosaccharides (3-10 units) polysaccharides (more than 10 units) polysaccharides (more than 10 units) Important Disaccharides Important Disaccharides: lactosemilk lactose (glucose + galactose): found in milk sucrosetable sugar sucrose (glucose + fructose): found in table sugar maltosemalt maltose (glucose + glucose): in malt Important Polysaccharides : glycogenanimal glycogen (from animal sources) starch plant starch (from plant sources) cellulose plant cellulose (plant sources) Bacterial polysaccharides glycosidic bonds The bonds that link monosaccharides are called glycosidic bonds

13. Polysaccharides Glycogen 1- Glycogen animals - It is a long and branched polysaccharide (glucose polymer) that humans and animals store liver skeletal muscles in the liver and skeletal muscles. storage - Main storage of carbohydrates in the body --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2- Starch plants - It is available in plants. main carbohydrate of diet -- It is the main carbohydrate of diet - Rich sources of starches - Rich sources of starches: include potatoes, rice and whe at. -It is a polysaccharide (glucose polymers) made up of: amylose 1- amylose (outer layer of starch granules) molecules are linear (long but with no branches) amylopectin 2- amylopectin (inner layer of starch granules) molecules are long and with branches enzyme amylase Humans and animals digest starch by hydrolysis by the enzyme amylase

14. Glycogen Amylopectin of Starch Glycogen & Amylopectin of Starch are branched chain  - D-glucose. polysaccharides made from  - D-glucose.  (1 - 4) linkage Glucose molecules are bound by  (1 - 4) linkage  (1 - 6) linkage Branches are linked by  (1 - 6) linkage structure structure of glycogen & amylopectin of starch

15. 3- Cellulose plants the structural constituents of plants are made mainly from cellulose. Wood Wood is mostly made of cellulose. papercotton paper and cotton are almost pure cellulose. Fibers of vegetables & fruits Fibers of vegetables & fruits are cellulose. Some animals can digest cellulose because their gut has a type of bacteria that has an enzyme which breaks down cellulose. BUT humans can not digest cellulose 4- Bacterial polysaccharide bacteriabacterial capsules 4- Bacterial polysaccharide s These are polysaccharides that are found in bacteria, especially in bacterial capsules. Pathogenic (illness causing) bacteria often produce a thick layer of mucous-like polysaccharide which protects the bacteria from the host's immune system. E. coli E. coli, which can cause disease, produces hundreds of different polysaccharides.

16. Amylose of starch (outer layer of starch granules) Linear (not branched)  1-4 glycosidic bond  1-4 glycosidic bond cellulose

17. Complex Carbohydrates Carbohydratesnon- carbohydrate Carbohydrates can be attached by glycosidic bonds to non- carbohydrate molecules including: nucleic acids 1- purines and pyrimidines (in nucleic acids) glycoproteins 2- proteins (in glycoproteins) glycolipids 3- lipids (glycolipids)

18. Reducing Sugars If the oxygen on the anomeric carbon of a sugar is not attached to any other structure, the sugar can act as a reducing agent and is termed a reducing sugar. Medical Importance Medical Importance : Benedict's reagent or Fehling's solution These sugars can react with chromogenic reagents as Benedict's reagent or Fehling's solution causing the reagent to be reduced and colored Applications in Medicine: diagnosis of presence glucose in urine Reducing and non-reducing sugars Reducing and non-reducing sugars : reducing - All monosaccharides are reducing sugars reducing - All disaccharides (EXCEPT sucrose) are reducing sugars non-reducing - Oligo- and polysaccharides are non-reducing suga rs

19. main carbohydrates of diet of humans monosaccharides 1- monosaccharides: glucose, fructose mainly glucose, fructose ABORBEDNO ABORBED with NO DIGESTION disaccharides 2- disaccharides: sucroselactose maltose sucrose, lactose & maltose DIGESTED DIGESTED into monosaccharides polysaccharides 3-polysaccharides: starch starch (plant source e.g. rice, potato, flour) glycogen & glycogen (animal source) DIGESTED DIGESTED into monosaccharides cellulose cellulose (fibers of vegetables & fruits) NOT NOT DIGESTED