1. ETEC 511 – Section 64B Module 8 – The Economics of Educational Technology Michael Alexander, Marjorie Del Mundo, Cindy Plunkett, and Louise Thomson

2. Summary: Confounding in Educational Computing Research Richard E. Clark University of Southern California

3. Abstract This article critically examines the assumption that ‘computer-based instruction will enhance student learning and performance over more traditional means.’ (Clarke 1985, p137)

4. Abstract Cont’d Clarke summarizes arguments from past and present research and his major conclusion is that ‘the independent variables in much of this research are seriously confounded’. (Clarke 1985, p137)

5. Abstract Cont’d Clarke does however suggest that ‘educational computing has a key role to play in instructional design and delivery, but not in instructional theories that underlie design and delivery decisions’. (Clarke 1985, p138)

6. Repeating Historical Errors? Enthusiasm for new media/technology is predictable, it gives hope of increasing learning and performance over older media Many studies reflect this assumption that newer technology means increased learning and performance

7. Repeating Historical Errors? Cont’d Clarke concludes “…media do not influence learning under any conditions. Even in the few cases where dramatic changes in achievement or ability have followed the introduction of a medium…it was not the medium that caused the change but rather a curriculum reform that accompanied the change.” (Clarke 1985 p. 139)

8. Repeating Historical Errors? Cont’d Most comparisons between different technology do not ensure that ALL variables are constant To create a valid comparison ONLY the medium can vary Clarke believes that if these conditions were met, ‘there would be absolutely no reason to expect learning advantages for any medium over any other’. (Clarke 1985 p. 139)

9. Novelty Effects Clarke also hypothesizes that some of the learning gains from newer technology might be attributed to the ‘novelty effect’ He does say that this gives the instructor the opportunity to put this effect to good use. Perhaps even reengaging some learners

10. Theory Oriented Studies Of Computer Effects Generally the theory oriented studies hypotheses are generated from attribute theories questions There are 3 main assumptions underlying most of the computer attribute research –The Cultivation Assumption –The Uniqueness Assumption –The Generalizability Assumption

11. Theory Oriented Studies Of Computer Effects Cont’d The Cultivation Assumption: The attribute will cultivate cognitive skills when students are exposed to them properly The conditions must encourage the student to reach a learning criterion with the skill being modeled.

12. Theory Oriented Studies Of Computer Effects Cont’d The Uniqueness Assumption: The computer attribute will provide unique variables ‘for descriptive theories about the relationship between attribute modeling by students and subsequent achievement’ (Clarke 1985, p. 142) After review of the symbol system Clarke concluded the resulting skills were not the unique products of computer attributes. Base on his evidence gathered he believes the uniqueness assumption is questionable

13. Theory Oriented Studies Of Computer Effects Cont’d The Generalizability Assumption: The uniqueness skills cultivated will transfer beyond the context and be available to solve novel problems. Skills gained from programming or computer presentation will transfer beyond the immediate learning This transfer is more likely to happen when ‘prolonged, varied and intensive instruction facilitates the decontextualization of skills’. (Clarke 1985 p. 145)

14. Distortion From Editorial Gate Keeping There is evidence that are large number of published studies illustrating performance gains due to computer based instruction can be attributed to editorial bias. Excitement over new technology may be clouding judgement. Editorial bias is likely a factor in publishing decisions.

15. Summary and Conclusion The vast majority of published education computing studies show large performance gains from computer based instruction and computer attribute theory variables

16. Summary and Conclusion Cont’d There is compelling evidence that many of these studies lack construct validity. The gains could be resultant from different instructional methods, student enthusiasm for novel medium and not the computer per se.

17. Summary and Conclusion Cont’d There are theories that select computer attributes can cultivate unique cognitive skills and generalizability. There are few studies and replications in this area and caution is suggested by Clarke.

18. Summary and Conclusion Cont’d There is also evidence that journal editors make biased decisions regarding which studies they publish which gives an artificial impression regarding the effects of computer based instruction

19. Summary and Conclusion Cont’d The confounding of these studies does not mean that computers are useless in education. On the contrary Clarke asserts that there are intelligent and highly practical applications for computers in education. Clarke merely asserts that ‘researchers and educators should be reluctant to attribute learning gains either to the computer or to any unique quality of computers’. (Clarke 1985 p. 147)

20. Questions Have you felt the impact of economics on the education technology in your workplace? Please explain. From your own experience do you believe that if all variables were equal, computer based instruction would enhance student learning and performance over traditional means? What type of impact do you see the ‘teacher’ variable as having in regards to student and learning performance?

21. Questions Cont’d Have you observed the ‘novelty’ effect that Clarke speaks to in your classroom setting? Do you see it as a benefit or detriment? Have you been able to harness this effect? Do you believe that publishers of studies regarding performance gains due to computer based instruction can be unbiased?