1. Religious Diversity in the Age of Colonial Conquest
Native American, African and European Christian Religious Forms

2. The European “Lens”
The trope of European Colonialism was the misdiagnosis of foreign cultures as “lacking religion” and thus being uncivilized or in the case of Judaism and Islam, being inferior religiously
Therein lay much of the justification behind their later conquests
Unlike European cultures that circumscribed religion to the “religious” sphere, Native American and African religion was invisible because it permeated every aspect of life

3. I. Native American Religion
Native Americans had no word for religion; religion permeated every aspect of tribal life
Myth was a central cultural facet
Myth explains some “basic truth about human life” and a means of affirming their collective tribal identity (i.e. different tribes held different myths accounting for things in the natural world)
There existed a strong connectedness with the spiritual realm
Native Americans usually found supernatural reasons for given trials and triumphs

4. I. Native Americans Native Americans felt tied to the land
Since all were connected to a common origin, descending from ancestors who arose from the earth- as versions of the creation myth stated- none had a private claim to the land
There were those who were seen to have a special connection to the land and the spirit realm
Shamans, who because of their connection to the spirit realm, healed social and physical ills through ritual

5. II. African Religions
Like Native Americans in terms of the interrelatedness between the sacred and earthly spheres
“Spirit possession”, whereby a person is overtaken by divine power, is an example of this particular to African culture
This often came through song and dance; dance itself was viewed as a literal recreation of the world, because it embodied the divine in seemingly ordinary movement

6. III. European Christianity
Christianity in Europe was not as cohesive as those examining “other” forms of religion liked to think
The hegemony of Roman Catholic Church was disrupted by Martin Luther, John Calvin, Huldreich Zwingli, Henry VIII and the Anabaptists, during the Reformation
The Reformers felt they were stripping the church of all its frills and returning it to its essentials
Even among these Reformers however, differences abound
In England in particular, Henry VIII made the king the supreme head of the church, marking the beginning of the English Reformation; his daughter Mary would return England to Catholicism; then her half-sister, Elizabeth I, later returned the church to Protestantism
The 17th century would witness the birth of the Puritans, who believed that the Reformation was not complete in England

7. Colonial Encounters
Europeans’ first impression of Native Americans was that their veneration of spiritual ancestry translated to “crass polytheism” (11) and their ritual as pagan; African peoples lacked “souls” and the visual differences between Europeans and Africans was disconcerting
However, tension existed between religious and economic motives: do we convert them?
To convert Native Americans or Africans would be to incorporate them, thus complicating Europeans’ right as superior beings to the land and even to the bodies of those foreigners

8. IV. Judaism and Islam
European Christians claimed superiority over Jews and Muslims due to religious superiority, rather than superiority of civilization
Jews were often ghettoized or given the option of “convert or die”- though this did not eliminate a Jewish presence in Europe
Muslims, who were expanding territory rapidly to the south and east of Europe, were encountered directly during the Crusades; for those Muslims inhabiting in Europe they too were given the choice to convert or perish, requiring that they too take their religion underground