1. Carbon and Organic Chemistry
The unique properties of an organic compound depend not only on its carbon skeleton but also on the atoms attached to the skeleton
These atoms are called functional groups
Some common functional groups include:
Hydroxyl group
Carbonyl group
Amino group
Carboxyl group
Found in alcohols
and sugars
Found in amino acids
and urea in urine (from
protein breakdown)
Found in amino acids,
fatty acids, and some
vitamins
Found in sugars

2. Table 2.3a
Six Functional Groups Commonly Attached to Carbon Atoms

3. Table 2.3b
Six Functional Groups Commonly Attached to Carbon Atoms

4. Macromolecules *most macromolecules are polymers polymer monomer
The making and breaking of polymers:
Dehydration reaction:
Hydrolysis: 4

5. MAJOR TYPES OF PROTEINS
Proteins perform most of the tasks the body needs to function
They are the most elaborate of life’s molecules
MAJOR TYPES OF PROTEINS
Structural Proteins
Storage Proteins
Contractile Proteins
Transport Proteins
Enzymes 5

6. Proteins as Polymers
Cells link amino acids together by dehydration synthesis
Carboxyl
group
Amino
group
The resulting bond between them is called a peptide bond
Side
group
Side
group
Amino acid
Amino acid
Dehydration
synthesis
Side
group
Side
group
Peptide bond 6

7. Amino Acids

8. Protein Structure Primary structure1 5
The arrangement of amino acids makes each protein different 15 10 35 30 25 20 45
Primary structure 40 50 55 65 60 70
The specific sequence of amino acids in a protein 85 80 75 95
100 90
110
115
105
120
125
129
Amino acid 8

9. Protein Structure
A slight change in the primary structure of a protein affects its ability to function
The substitution of one amino acid for another in hemoglobin causes sickle-cell disease 2 3 6 1 4 5
(a) Normal red blood cell
Normal hemoglobin 1 2 3 6 4 5
(b) Sickled red blood cell
Sickle-cell hemoglobin 9

10. Macromolecules
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure

11. Macromolecules
Quaternary structure
How does this all happen?
●Spontaneously ●Chaperonins

12. Nucleic Acids ● Include DNA and RNA Information storage molecules
They provide the directions for building proteins
Gene
DNA
RNA
Protein
Amino acid
Nucleic acids

13. Nucleic Acids ●Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides
Nitrogenous base
(A,G,C, or T)
Phosphate
group
Thymine (T)
Sugar
(deoxyribose)
Base
DNA, deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA, ribonucleic acid
Nitrogenous base
A, G, C, or U
Uracil U
Phosphate
group
Sugar ribose

14. Nucleic Acids
●Each nucleotide has one of the following bases:

15. Nucleic Acids ●Nucleic Acid Structure Sugar-phosphate backbone Bases
pair
Nucleotide
Hydrogen
bond
Bases
a DNA strand
polynucleotide
b Double helix
two polynucleotide strands

16. Nucleic Acids
●Nucleic Acid Structure

17. Nucleic Acids
DNA Structure

18. Carbohydrates Carbohydrates include
Small sugar molecules in soft drinks
Monosaccharides & Disaccharides
Long starch molecules in pasta and potatoes
Polysaccharides 18

19. Monosaccharides Monosaccharides are simple sugars
Glucose, found in sports drinks
Fructose, found in fruit
Honey contains both glucose and fructose
Glucose
Fructose
Isomers 19

20. Monosaccharides In aqueous solutions, monosaccharides form rings
(b) Abbreviated ring
structure 20

21. Disaccharides A disaccharide is a double sugar
Disaccharides are joined by the process of dehydration synthesis
Glucose
Glucose
Maltose 21

22. Disaccharides
The most common disaccharide is sucrose, common table sugar
It consists of a glucose linked to a fructose
Sucrose is extracted from sugar cane and the roots of sugar beets 22

23. Polysaccharides They are long chains of sugar units
They are polymers of monosaccharides
Glucose
monomer
Starch granules in
potato tuber cells
(a) Starch
Glycogen
Granules
In muscle
tissue
(b) Glycogen
Cellulose fibril in
a plant cell wall
Cellulose molecules
(c) Cellulose 23

24. Lipids
●Lipids are:
Large biological molecules that do not include polymers.
Hydrophobic, unable to mix with water.
Oil (hydrophobic)
Vinegar (hydrophilic)

25. Lipids
●FATS
● Dietary fat consists largely of the molecule triglyceride
A combination of glycerol and three fatty acids
Fatty acid
Glycerol
(a) A dehydration reaction linking a fatty acid to glycerol
(b) A fat molecule with a glycerol “head” and three
energy-rich hydrocarbon fatty acid “tails”

26. Lipids (Fats) ●Unsaturated fatty acids
Have less than the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons
●Saturated fatty acids
Have the maximum number of hydrogens bonded to the carbons

27. Lipids (Fats) Saturated Fats TYPES OF FATS Unsaturated Fats Margarine
Plant oils
Trans fats
Omega-3 fats
INGREDIENTS: SOYBEAN OIL, FULLY HYDROGENATED
COTTONSEED OIL, PARTIALLY HYDROGENATED
COTTONSEED OIL AND SOYBEAN OILS, MONO AND
DIGLYCERIDES, TBHO AND CITRIC ACID ANTIOXIDANTS

28. Lipids
Phospholipids
Steroids

29. Lipids
●STEROIDS
Steroids are very different from fats in structure and function.
Cholesterol
Testosterone
A type of estrogen

30. Biological Molecules