1. Guidelines for Perioperative Cardiovascular Evaluation for Noncardiac Surgery*
A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart AssociationTask Force on Practice Guidelines
*Eagle KA, Brundage BH, Chaitman, BR et al: Circulation 1996;93: and JACC 1996;27:
© 1998 American Heart Association, Inc. All rights reserved. Unauthorized use prohibited.

2. Prepared by: Jamie Conti, MD Forrester Lee, MD
Committee on Post Graduate Education, Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association
Prepared by:
Jamie Conti, MD
Forrester Lee, MD

3. Purpose of Preoperative Evaluation
Evaluate patient’s current medical status.
Provide clinical risk profile.
Provide recommendations for management of cardiac risk over entire perioperative period.
The purpose of preoperative evaluation is not to give medical clearance but rather to perform an evaluation of the patient’s current medical status, make recommendations concerning the risk of cardiac problems over the entire perioperative period, and provide a clinical risk profile that the patient, his or her primary physician, anesthesiologist, and surgeon can use in making treatment decisions. No test should be performed unless it is likely to influence patient treatment.

4. Role of the Consultant
Review available patient data, history and physical examination.
Communicate severity and stability of patient’s cardiovascular status.
Determine if patient in optimal medical condition, given context of surgical illness.
The consultant should review available patient data, obtain a history, and perform a physical examination pertinent to the patient's problem and the proposed surgery. A critical role of the consultant is to communicate the severity and stability of the patient's cardiovascular status and to determine if the patient is in the best reasonable medical condition, given the context of the surgical illness.

5. General Approach to the Patient
History
Physical Examination
Comorbid Diseases
Pulmonary
Diabetes Mellitus
Renal Impairment
Hematologic Disorders
Ancillary Studies
Preoperative cardiac evaluation must be carefully tailored to the circumstances that have prompted the consultation and nature of the surgical illness. A careful history and cardiovascular examination are crucial. In addition, the consultant must evaluate the cardiovascular system within the framework of the patient's overall health. Ancillary studies may be minimal, but should include review of the electrocardiogram

6. Clinical Predictors of Increased Perioperative Cardiovascular Risk
Major
Unstable coronary syndromes.
Decompensated CHF.
Significant Arrhythmias.
Intermediate
Mild angina pectoris.
Prior MI.
Compensated or prior CHF.
Diabetes Mellitus.
Minor
Advanced Age.
Abnormal ECG.
Rhythm other than sinus.
Low functional capacity.
History of stroke.
Uncontrolled HTN.

7. Disease Specific Approaches
Coronary Artery Disease (CAD).
Patients with known CAD.
Patients with major risk factors for CAD.
Hypertension.
Congestive Heart Failure.
Valvular Heart Disease.
Arrhythmias and Conduction Defects.
Pulmonary Vascular Disease.
In patients with known CAD, as well as those with newly discovered coronary disease, the following questions should be answered:
1. What is the amount of myocardium in jeopardy?
2. What is the ischemic threshold?
3. What is the patient’s ventricular function?

8. Type of Surgery Urgency. High surgical risk:
Aortic and other major vascular.
Peripheral vascular.
Anticipated prolonged surgical procedures
associated with large fluid shifts and/or
blood loss.
Cardiac complications are two to five times more likely to occur with emergency surgical procedures than with elective operations. In addition, the magnitude of the surgical procedure influences the cardiac risk. Major vascular procedures represent the highest risk, as well as those with prolonged duration and large fluid shifts.

9. Type of Surgery Intermediate surgical risk: Carotid endarterectomy.
Head and neck surgery.
Intraperitoneal and intrathoracic, orthopedic and prostate surgery.

10. Type of Surgery Low surgical risk:
Endoscopic and superficial procedures.
Cataract surgery.
Breast surgery.

11. Supplemental Preoperative Evaluation
Noninvasive resting left ventricular function:
Risk of complications greatest with EF<35%.
Recommendations
Class I: Poorly controlled CHF.
Class II: Prior CHF or dyspnea of unknown etiology.
Class III: Routine test without prior CHF.
Class I: Conditions for which or patients for whom there is general agreement that this procedure is useful.
Class II: Procedure frequently used but there is divergence of opinion with respect to its usefulness.
Class III: General agreement that procedure is of little or no usefulness.
The greatest risk of complications is seen in patients with left ventricular function less than 35%. Preoperative noninvasive evaluation of left ventricular function is indicated in patients with current or poorly controlled CHF. It is probably indicated in patients with prior CHF and patients with dyspnea of unknown etiology.

12. Assessment of Risk for Coronary Artery Disease and Functional Capacity (1)
Goal:
Provide objective measure of functional capacity.
Identify presence of preoperative myocardial ischemia or cardiac arrhythmias.
Estimate perioperative cardiac risk and long-term prognosis.
The aim of supplemental preoperative testing is to provide an objective measure of functional capacity, to identify the presence of important preoperative myocardial ischemia or cardiac arrhythmias, and to estimate perioperative cardiac risk and long-term prognosis.

13. Assessment of Risk for Coronary Artery Disease and Functional Capacity (2)
Specific Approaches:
Exercise stress testing.
Nonexercise stress testing:
Dobutamine stress echocardiography.
Dipyridamole/adenosine thallium testing.
Ambulatory electrocardiographic monitoring.
In most ambulatory patients, the test of choice is exercise ECG testing, which can provide both an estimate of functional capacity and detect myocardial ischemia through changes in the ECG and hemodynamic response. In patients with abnormalities on their resting ECG, other techniques such as exercise echo or radionuclear imaging should be considered. In patients unable to perform adequate exercise, a nonexercise stress test should be used.

14. Assessment of Risk for Coronary Artery Disease and Functional Capacity (3)
Recommendations:
Test of choice is exercise ECG testing.
Provides estimate of functional capacity.
Detects myocardial ischemia.
In most settings, the test of choice is exercise ECG testing, which can provide both an estimate of functional capacity and detect myocardial ischemia.

15. Implications of Risk Assessment Strategies on Costs
Proposed benefit:
Identifying unsuspected CAD.
Decreasing morbidity/mortality.
Risk:
Morbidity/mortality from test.
Cost of screening.
Cost of treatment.
The decision to recommend further noninvasive or invasive testing for the individual patient is based on the risk/benefit ratio. The benefit to the patient is identifying unsuspected CAD, and possibly decreasing morbidity and mortality postoperatively. The risk from the test, as well as the cost, should also be considered.

16. Preoperative Therapy (1)
Recommendation: Preoperative CABG
Patients with prognostic high risk coronary anatomy in whom long-term outcome would likely be improved.
Noncardiac elective surgical procedure of high or intermediate risk.
The decision to perform revascularization on a patient before noncardiac surgery is appropriate only in a small subset of very high-risk patients. Patients undergoing elective noncardiac procedures with high risk coronary anatomy, and in whom long-term outcome would likely be improved by CABG, should undergo revascularization before a noncardiac elective surgical procedure of high or intermediate risk.

17. Preoperative Therapy (2)
Recommendation: Preoperative Coronary Angioplasty.
No randomized clinical trials documenting decreased incidence of perioperative cardiac events.
No prospective studies to determine optimal period of delay.
There are no randomized clinical trials documenting the benefit of prophylactic percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty or other transcatheter revascularization before noncardiac surgery.

18. Preoperative Therapy (3)
Recommendations: Medical Therapy.
Few randomized trials.
Preliminary studies suggest B-blockers reduce perioperative ischemia and may reduce risk of MI and death.
Preliminary studies suggest that B-blockers reduce perioperative ischemia and may reduce risk of MI and death.

19. Preoperative Therapy with B-Blockers
Class I. B-blockers required in recent past to control symptoms of angina; patients with symptomatic arrhythmias or hypertension.
Class II. Preoperative assessment identifies untreated hypertension, known coronary disease, or major risk factors for coronary disease.
Class III. Contraindications to B-blockade.
This slide summarizes the Class I, II, and III indications for perioperative B-blocker therapy.
Class I: Conditions for which or patients for whom there is general agreement that this medication is useful.
Class II: Medication frequently used but there is divergence of opinion with respect to its usefulness.
Class III: General agreement that medication is of little or no usefulness

20. Preoperative Valve Surgery
Valvular heart disease severe enough to warrant surgical treatment should have valve surgery before elective noncardiac surgery.
Patients with severe mitral or aortic stenosis who require urgent noncardiac surgery may benefit from catheter balloon valvuloplasty.

21. Preoperative Intensive Care (1)
Goal
Optimize and augment oxygen delivery in patients at high risk.
Hypothesis
Indices derived from pulmonary artery catheter and invasive blood pressure monitoring can be used to maximize oxygen delivery, which leads to reduction in organ dysfunction.
Preoperative invasive monitoring in an intensive care setting can be used to optimize and even augment oxygen delivery in patients at high risk.

22. Preoperative Intensive Care (2)
Recommendations:
Based on scant evidence, preoperative preparation in intensive care unit may benefit certain high risk patients, particularly those with decompensated CHF.

23. General Guidelines for Perioperative Prophylaxis for Venous Thromboembolism*
Type of Patient/Surgery
Minor surgery in a pt <40 yo w/ no correlates of venous thromboembolism risk
Moderate-risk surgery in a pt >40 yo w/ correlates of thromboembolism risk †
Major surgery in pt >40 yo w/ clinical conditions associated w/ venous thromboembolism risk †
Recommendation
Early ambulation
ES; LDH (2 h preop & q 12 h after), or IPC (intraop & postop)
LDH (q 8 h) or LMWH. IPC is prone to wound bleeding
*Developed from Clagett et al. Prevention of venous thromboembolism. Chest ;102(suppl 4):391S-407S.
ES indicates graded compression elastic stockings; LDH, low-dose subcutaneous heparin; IPC, intermittent pneumatic compression; LMWH, low molecular weight heparin.
†Clinical conditions associated with increased risk of venous thromboembolism: advanced age; prolonged immobility or paralysis; previous venous thromboembolism; malignancy; major surgery of abdomen, pelvis, or lower extremity; obesity; varicose veins; congestive heart failure; myocardial infarction; stroke; fracture(s) of the pelvis, hip or leg; hypercoagulable states; and possibly high-dose estrogen use.

24. Perioperative Prophylaxis for Venous Thromboembolism (2)
Type of Patient/Surgery
Very high-risk surgery in a pt w/multiple clinical conditions associated with thromboembolism risk
Total hip replacement
Recommendation
LDH, LMWH, or dextran combined w/ IPC. In selected pts, periop warfarin (INR ) may be used.
LMWH (postop, subq twice daily, fixed dose unmonitored) or warfarin (INR , started preop) or immed after surgery) or adjusted dose unfractionated heparin (started preop). ES or IPC may provide addn’l efficacy.

25. Perioperative Prophylaxis for Venous Thromboembolism (3)
Type of Patient/Surgery
Total knee replacement
Hip fracture surgery
Intracranial neurosurgery
Recommendation
LMWH (posto, subq, twice daily, fixed dose unmonitored) or IPC.
LMWH (preop, subq., fixed dose unmonitored) or warfarin (INR ). IPC may provide addn’l benefit.
IPC w/ or w/o ES. Consider add’n of LDH in high-risk pts.

26. Perioperative Prophylaxis for Venous Thromboembolism (4)
Type of Patient/Surgery
Acute spinal cord injury with lower- extremity paralysis
Patients with multiple trauma
Recommendation
Adjusted dose heparin or LMWH for prophylaxis. Warfarin may also be effective. LDH, ES, and IPC may have benefit when used together.
IPC, warfarin, or LMWH when feasible, serial surveillance with duplex ultrasonography may be useful. In selected very high-risk pts, consider prophylactic caval filter.

27. Anesthetic Considerations and Intraoperative Management (1)
No study clearly demonstrated improved outcome from use of:
Pulmonary artery catheter.
ST-segment monitoring.
Transesophageal echocardiography.
Intravenous nitroglycerin.
Prophylactic placement of intra-aortic balloon counterpulsation device.

28. Anesthetic Considerations and Intraoperative Management (2)
Choice of anesthetic and intraoperative monitoring best left to discretion of anesthesia care team.

29. Perioperative Surveillance
Post operative myocardial ischemia:
Strongest predictor of perioperative cardiac morbidity.
May go untreated until overt symptoms of cardiac failure develop.
Diagnosis of perioperative MI has short and long-term prognostic value.
30% to 50% perioperative mortality and reduced long-term survival.
Intraoperative and post operative surveillance of the high risk patient should also lead to decreased morbidity and mortality. The strongest predictor of perioperative cardiac morbidity is myocardial ischemia, which is rarely accompanied by pain. Therefore, it may go untreated until overt cardiac failure is present. Perioperative MIs are associated with a 30-50% mortality.

30. Perioperative Surveillance: Intraoperative and Postoperative Use of Pulmonary Artery Catheters
Class I: Patients at risk for major hemodynamic disturbances most easily detected by a pulmonary artery catheter undergoing procedure likely to cause these hemodynamic changes in setting with experience in interpreting results.
Class II: Either patients' condition or surgical procedure (but not both) places patient at risk for hemodynamic disturbances.
Class III: No risk of hemodynamic disturbances
This slide summarizes the indications for perioperative use of pulmonary artery catheters.
Class I: Conditions for which or patients for whom there is general agreement that this procedure is useful.
Class II: Procedure frequently used but there is divergence of opinion with respect to its usefulness.
Class III: General agreement that procedure is of little or no usefulness

31. Perioperative Surveillance: Potential Myocardial Infarction (1)
Patients without evidence of CAD:
Surveillance restricted to those who develop perioperative signs of cardiovascular dysfunction.
Further evaluation regarding the optimal strategy for surveillance and diagnosis of perioperative MI is required before one method is advocated. In patients without evidence of CAD, surveillance should be restricted to patients who develop perioperative signs of cardiovascular dysfunction.

32. Perioperative Surveillance: Potential Myocardial Infarction (2)
Patients with known or suspected CAD:
ECGs at baseline, immediately after procedure, and daily x 2 days.
Measurements of cardiac enzymes best reserved for patients at high risk or who demonstrate ECG or hemodynamic evidence of cardiovascular dysfunction.
In patients with known or suspected CAD undergoing surgical procedures associated with a high incidence of cardiovascular morbidity, ECGs at baseline, immediately after the surgical procedure, and daily on the first 2 days postoperatively appear to be the most cost-effective strategy.

33. Perioperative Surveillance: Arrhythmia/Conduction Disease (1)
Often due to remedial noncardiac problems:
Infection.
Hypotension.
Metabolic derangements.
Hypoxia.
Postoperative arrhythmias are often due to remedial noncardiac problems such as infection, hypotension,metabolic derangements, and hypoxia. Correction of the underlying problem frequently corrects the arrhythmia as well.

34. Perioperative Surveillance: Arrhythmia/Conduction Disease (2)
Cardioversion not recommended until precipitating causes corrected or modified.
Electrical cardioversion for supraventricular or ventricular arrhythmias causing hemodynamic compromise.
Cardioversion of supraventricular arrhythmias is generally not recommended until correction of the underlying problems has occurred. However, electrical cardioversion should be used for supraventricular or ventricular arrhythmias causing hemodynamic compromise.

35. Postoperative Therapy/Future Management
Assessment and management of risk factors for:
CAD.
Heart failure.
Hypertension.
Stroke.
Other cardiovascular disease.
Whenever possible, postoperative management should include the assessment and management of any risk factors for CAD, heart failure, hypertension, stroke, or other cardiovascular disease that may have been identified in the preoperative period.

36. Conclusions (1)
Successful perioperative evaluation and management of high-risk cardiac patients undergoing noncardiac surgery requires careful teamwork and communication between surgeon, anesthesiologist, primary care physician, and consultant.

37. Conclusions (2)
Indications for further cardiac testing and treatments are the same as in the nonoperative setting, but timing is dependent on several factors, including:
The urgency of the noncardiac surgery.
Patient-specific risk factors.
Surgery-specific considerations.

38. Conclusions (3)
Use of both noninvasive and invasive preoperative testing should be limited to circumstances in which the results of the tests clearly affect patient management.

39. Conclusions (4)
The consultant best serves the patient by making recommendations aimed at:
Lowering immediate perioperative cardiac risk.
Assessing need for subsequent postoperative risk stratification and interventions directed to modify coronary risk factors.
© 1998 American Heart Association, Inc. All rights reserved. Unauthorized use prohibited.