1. Immigration

2. Immigration Immigration Waves First and Second Wave
Naturalization Law and Race
The Case of Puerto Rico
Chinese Exclusion Acts
Public opinion
Labor leaders’ opinion
Legislation
Loopholes in Legislation
Construction of Racial Difference
Visually
Legally
Immigration Restriction
Literacy tests and Quotas
Act of 1924

3. Immigration Waves in US History
antebellum, —largely northern European, especially England, Ireland and Germany—approx. 4.5 million
late —largely Southern and Eastern European, including Polish and Russian Jews, Italian, Greek—approx million
also Asian immigrants in the late 19th-early 20th century, in much fewer numbers (for example, Chinese immigrants built US railroads)
Immigration Act of 1924 establishes national quotas for immigration - immigration drops sharply
after 1965 immigration act reform - immigrants from Latin America, the Caribbean, and Asia outnumber those from Europe

4. Immigration Waves > Naturalization Law and Race in US History
Congress limits naturalization to white persons
Congress adds African Americans (naturalization limited to “free white persons” and “persons of African descent”)
racial prerequisite for naturalization eliminated

5. Immigration Waves > The Case of Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico acquired as a result of Spanish-American War
US Citizenship extended to Puerto Ricans
Puerto Rico becomes a “Commonwealth,” has a right to establish a government with proper constitution, officially no longer a colony
The largest Puerto Rican migration to the mainland US (69,124)
Plebiscites and referendums on the political status of Puerto Rico: 1967 (commonwealth 60%, state 39%, independence 1%) , 1993, the commonwealth is reaffirmed each time with increasingly narrower margins
non-binding 1998 referendum:
remain a US commonwealth: 0.06%
“free association” between commonwealth and independence: 0.29%
become a state: 46.49%
declare independence: 2.54%
none of the above: 50.30%
non-binding 2012 referendum:
1. remain a US commonwealth: No 54%
2 a. statehood: 61%
b. sovereign free associated state 33%
c. independence 5%

6. Immigration Waves > The Godfather, Part II (1974)

7. Immigration Waves > Alfred Stieglitz, “The Steerage,” 1907
photograph of “immigrants” returning to Europe
Alfred Stieglitz
The Steerage
1907

8. Chinese Exclusion > Cartoon on the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882

9. Chinese Exclusion > “The Chinese: Many Handed But Soulless,” The Wasp, 1885
The Wasp, v. 15, July - Dec [cover]
"The Chinese : Many Handed But Soulless"

10. Chinese Exclusion > “The Bradys and the Chinese Dwarf,” ca. 1907
The Brady's and the Chinese dwarf, or, The "que hunter" of the Barbary Coast

11. Chinese Exclusion > Labor leaders’ opinion
Denis Kearney, California’s Workingmen’s Party (typical)
Chinese laborers are “cheap working slaves” who lower white workers’ standard of living and should be banished from the U.S.
Joseph McDonnell, an Irish-born socialist
Intolerance against the Chinese repeats earlier “intolerant, silly and shameful cry” against the Irish. Workers should learn from this history and unite
B.E.G. Jewett, a socialist
Corporate employers-“oppressors, money-mongers”-are to blame
“What we want to fight is not the Chinese nor any other imported stock, be they Durham bulls or Spanish mules—be they men, women or babies—but we want to fight the importers, persons, who, ministering to their own greed, to the lust of the flesh and the pride of life, sell (or contract) into bondage the labor of others, and drive still others into deeper degradation and poverty. Let our pacific coast friends fight the wealth mongers, and not their slaves, and they will have not only justice but right on their side. Not say ‘the Chinese must go,’ but that ‘the oppressors, money-mongers, Sharons, et al. must go.’”

12. Chinese Exclusion > Acts of 1882, 1884, and 1888 and related legislation
Only Chinese non-laborers and those who were born in the U.S. can enter
Those who resided in the U.S. prior to 1880 can remain if they don’t leave the country
If they leave they can come back if they have at least one thousand dollars worth of property or debts owned to them
The status of wife and child followed that of a husband
No Chinese could be naturalized as U.S. citizen

13. Chinese Exclusion > Loopholes in Legislation
Many Chinese were able to get into the U.S. by appealing to U.S. Courts even after the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882
The prohibition of judicial review of immigration decisions did not apply to the Chinese because unlike other immigrants until 1903 they did not come under purview of the Bureau of Immigration and immigration law
Judges often ruled in favor of Chinese plaintiffs because they adhered to Anglo- American common law traditions of habeas corpus and evidentiary rules of witness testimony (for example, did not require two white witnesses)
Newcomers relied on community groups and white lawyers to make their case for citizenship based on witness testimony
This continued until 1905 when the Bureau of Immigration took over Chinese immigration and was granted final jurisdiction in the question of citizenship

14. Construction of Racial Difference > Fragment
What is this man’s ethnic background?

15. Construction of Racial Difference > Entire Cartoon, ca. Civil War

16. Construction of Racial Difference > Arnold Genthe, “An Unsuspecting Victim,” 1908
This image, "An Unsuspecting Victim," was also published in Old Chinatown. It shows Genthe himself with a hand-held camera. To create this image, Genthe cropped and retouched both the original and copy negatives in what became a series of alterations leading to the final version.

17. Construction of Racial Difference > Using photography to emphasize difference
This print, though different from the published version, was made from the same negative. It represents one stage leading to the creation of the finished print. To Genthe's left is a blurry area that once included a second figure. Genthe, through retouching, eliminated this second figure from the photograph.

18. Construction of Racial Difference > Emphasizing difference
The original negative is different from the two preceding prints. In it, Genthe occupies a small part of the street scene and the second figure on Genthe's left is visible. Genthe created the printed or final version by cropping the background and retouching the second figure.

19. Construction of Racial Difference > Emphasizing difference
This copy negative shows the red dye and the retouching marks Genthe applied to remove the second figure and create the finished photograph.

20. Progressive Reform Politics
Teddy Roosevelt and the rule of socially-conscious experts
End of “liberty of contract” doctrine
Art and Culture
Muckraking journalism
Documentary photography
Immigration and Labor
Settlement House movement
Idea of the “melting pot”

21. Progressive Politics > President Theodore Roosevelt, 1901-1909

22. Art and Culture > Cartoon about Muckraking Journalism

23. Art and Culture > Jacob Riis, “Bandit’s Roost, 59 1/2 Mulberry Street,” c. 1888

24. Art and Culture > Child Labor Poster with Lewis Hine’s Photographs
Jacob Riis
Bandit's Roost,
59 1/2 Mulberry Street
c. 1888

25. Immigration and Labor > Jane Addams, founder of the Hull House

26. Immigration and Labor > Hull House Complex, 1902
A view of the southeast corner of the Hull-House complex, with the Residents' Apartments in the foreground and extending to the west (left). At the far left is the Jane Club building, completed in 1898, and along the right are, from the center, the Courtyard gate with a second story studio, completed in 1902, the Men's Club building, completed in 1902, the Butler building, with its third story completed in 1896, the courtyard (with the original mansion hidden from view), and Children's building to the far right.
Original Caption: Ewing and Halsted Street Fronts [of Hull-House].
Artist/Photographer: Unknown
Date: 1902
Source: Allen B. Pond, "The 'Settlement House,'" part 3, The Brickbuilder 11, no. 9 (September 1902): 179.

27. Immigration and Labor > Hull House Kindergarten Class, 1902
Original Caption: [Chicago Commons] Kindergarten Detail.
Artist/Photographer: Unknown
Date: 1902
Source: Allen B. Pond, "The 'Settlement House,'" part 2, The Brickbuilder 11, no. 8 (August 1902): 164.

28. Immigration and Labor > Hull House “Labor Museum,” 1902
"On the first floor [of the 1901 Gymnasium building is] ... in front, the labor museum—to illustrate and in the mind of the worker integrate the various industrial processes from the raw material to the manufactured article through crude early hand processes to modern power machinery..."
Allen B. Pond, "The 'Settlement House,'" part 3, The Brickbuilder 11, no. 9 (September 1902): 180.

29. Immigration and Labor > Cartoon about the Melting Pot, 1889

30. Construction of Racial Difference > Jacob Riis, “Bandit’s Roost, 59 1/2 Mulberry Street,” c. 1888

31. Construction of Racial Difference > Jacob Riis, “Bandit’s Roost,” How the Other Half Lives (1890)
Halftone reproduction

32. Construction of Racial Difference > Jacob Riis, “Mullen’s Alley, Cherry Hill,” 1888

33. Construction of Racial Difference > “Home of an Italian Ragpicker,” 1888
Jacob Riis
Home of an Italian Ragpicker
1888

34. Construction of Racial Difference > “One of Four Pedlars Who Slept in the Cellar of 11 Ludlow Street Rear,” c. 1892
Jacob Riis
One of Four Pedlars Who Slept in the Cellar of 11 Ludlow Street Rear
c. 1892

35. Construction of Racial Difference > Supreme Court Decisions
In re Balsara, Asian Indians are probably not White Congressional intent
U.S. v. Dolla, Asian Indians are White Ocular inspection of skin
U.S. v. Balsara 1910 Asian Indians are White Scientific evidence 
In re Sadar Bhagwab Singh, 1917Asian Indians are not White Common knowledge 
Congressional intent
In re Mohan Singh, 1919 Asian Indians are White Scientific evidence 
In re Thind, Asian Indians are White Legal precedent
U.S. v. Thind, Asian Indians are not White Common knowledge 
In re Najour, Syrians are White Scientific evidence
In re Mudarri, Syrians are White Scientific evidence 
Legal precedent
In re Ellis, Syrians are White Common knowledge 
Ex parte Shahid, 1913 Syrians are not White Common knowledge
Ex parte Dow, 1914 Syrians are not White Common knowledge
In re Dow, Syrians are not White Common knowledge 
Dow v. U.S., Syrians are White Scientific evidence 
Congressional intent 

36. Construction of Racial Difference > Supreme Court Decisions
In re Mallari, Filipinos are not White No explanation
In re Rallos, Filipinos are not White Legal precedent
U.S. v. Javier, Filipinos are not White Legal precedent
De La Ysla v. U.S., 1935 Filipinos are not White Legal precedent
De Cano v. State, 1941 Filipinos are not White Legal precedent
In re Halladjian, 1909 Armenians are Whtie Scientific evidence 
Legal precedent
U.S. v. Cartozian, 1925 Armenians are White Scientific evidence 
Common knowledge  
In re Feroz Din, 1928 Afghanis are not White Common knowledge
In re Ahmed Hassan, 1942 Arabians are not White Common knowledge 
Ex parte Mohriez, 1944 Arabians are not White Legal precedent

37. Construction of Racial Difference > U.S. v Bhagat Singh Thind, 1923

38. U.S. in World War I > Typical Questions on the IQ test
Garnets are usually
A. yellow
B. blue
C. green
D. red  
Soap is made by
A. B. T. Babbitt
B. Smith & Wesson
C. W. L. Douglas
D. Swift & Co.
Laura Jean Libby is known as a
A. singer
B. suffragist
C. writer
D. army nurse
If you are lost in a forest in the daytime, what is the thing to do?
Hurry to the nearest house you know of
Look for something to eat
Use the sun or a compass for a guide
Commissioned officers
Non-commissioned officers
Negro officers
Middle-ireland, turkey
At the bottom-southern american negro

39. U.S. in World War I > US Army Intelligence Test Results
Commissioned officers
Non-commissioned officers
Negro officers
Middle-ireland, turkey
At the bottom-southern american negro

40. Klan in the 1920s > Timeline of Klan History
founded during Reconstruction, collapsed in 1870s
revived in 1915 (in part because of the movie Birth of a Nation)
resurgence of popularity in the 1920s, but collapsed again by the 1930s
again reappears in the 1950s

41. Klan in the 1920s > Poster for the Film The Birth of a Nation by W
Klan in the 1920s > Poster for the Film The Birth of a Nation by W.G. Griffith (1915). This film contributed to the revival of Klan’s popularity after WW I
Klansmen paraded city streets; National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (founded six years earlier) protested; they were unsuccessful in part because Griffith issued a guide to the film that quoted major historians of Reconstruction at the time, all apologists of slavery and white supremacy the first film ever to be screened in White house (Woodrow Wilson called it “history written in lightning”)

42. Klan in the 1920s > Social Movements Supported by the Klan
prohibition
anti-immigrant sentiments
anti-radicalism
religious fundamentalism
morality and family values

43. Klan in the 1920s > Washington, D.C. Parade against immigration
Demonstrating their political power, Klansmen triumphantly parade down Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C., on September 13, 1926, in full regalia.

44. Immigration Restriction > Cartoon on the Literacy Test, 1917

45. Immigration Restriction > Cartoon on the Quota Act of 1921
Congress passed the Quota Act of 1921, limiting entrants from each nation to 3 percent of that nationality’s presence in the U.S. population as recorded by the 1910 census. As a result, immigration from Southern and Eastern Europe dropped to less than one-quarter of pre-World War I levels.

46. Immigration Restriction > Act of 1924 (The Johnson-Reed Act)
Based ceilings on the number of immigrants from any particular nation on 2 percent of each nationality recorded in the 1890 census
Was directed against immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe who arrived in large numbers after 1890
Barred all immigrants ineligible for citizenship on racial grounds, including all south and east Asians (including Indians, Japanese, and Chinese)
1965 Hart-Celler Act abandones the national origins quota system

47. Immigration Restriction > Annual Immigration Quotas, 1924
Germany - 51,227
Great Britain - 34,007
Ireland - 28,567
Italy - 3,845
Hungary - 473
Greece - 100
Egypt - 100

48. Immigration Restriction > Map of Europe, Literary Digest, 1924

49. McCarran-Walter Act of 1952
Left the system of quotas by nationality intact:
European immigrants 149,667
Asian immigrants 2,990
African immigrants 1,400

50. Immigration Act of 1965
allowed more people from non-Western countries to enter
admittance based on professional skill or family unification
a separate quota for refugees (at the time, mostly from Communist countries or the Middle East)
was not considered revolutionary at the time but in the end it was
president Lyndon Johnson signed
politicians favored it, many constituents opposed
as a result, immigrants from Latin America, the Caribbean, and Asia outnumber those from Europe