1. Guidelines for Making Reading-Writing Conections
Timothy Shanahan
University of Illinois at Chicago

2. Writing: The Neglected “R”
Of the “3 Rs,” writing has been accorded the least attention
Notion has been that reading is a widely needed skill, but that writing is an elite skill
The National Reading Panel did not examine writing research (though it considered reviewing it)
Writing: The Neglected “R”

3. According to the National Commission on Writing…
More than 90% of mid-career professionals indicate that writing is important in their work
Writing is essential for success in higher education, yet more than 50% of college freshmen have serious writing problems
Fewer than 30% of elementary and high school students meet NAEP’s writing proficiency standards
According to the National Commission on Writing…

4. National Assessment 4 16% 60% 23% 1% 8 56% 27% 12 22% 55% Grade Below
Basic
Proficient
Advanced 4
16%
60%
23% 1% 8
56%
27% 12
22%
55%

5. Students can write, but they cannot produce writing at high levels of skill, maturity, and sophistication
Few students can produce precise, engaging, and coherent prose
Fewer than a quarter can write convincing, elaborated responses with compelling language
According to NAEP…

6. Reading-Writing Relationships
Given the high profile of reading, writing must be considered relative reading
Writing and reading depend on a common core of knowledge
Writing requires deeper processing than reading
But how can reading and writing be best combined for efficiency and effectiveness?
Reading-Writing Relationships

7. Shanahan, T. (2008). Relations among oral language, reading, and writing development. In C. A. MacArthur, S. Graham, & J. Fitzgerald (Eds.), Handbook of Writing Research (pp ). New York: Guilford Press. Tierney, R. J., & Shanahan, T. (1991). Research on the reading-writing relationship: Interactions, transactions, and outcomes. In R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P. D. Pearson (Eds.), Handbook of Reading Research (pp ). New York: Longman.
Research Sources

8. Principle 1: Teach both reading and writing
Statistical analyses show that the relationships between reading and writing are bidirectional
To fully exploit the relationships, reading and writing BOTH must be taught
Writing instruction and practice daily and of sufficient duration to develop quality writers
Principle 1: Teach both reading and writing

9. To maximize literacy learning and to take advantage of the relationships across reading and writing it is essential to teach both reading and writing
Since every school stresses reading my emphasis here is on adding writing to the equation
The next several slides are about what we know about the teaching of writing

10. Status of writing instruction
Unfortunately, writing is not being taught
NCLB did not require it
State curricula do include writing, but without much emphasis
Efforts like Reading First downplayed the role of writing to “protect” the place of reading in the school day
Status of writing instruction

11. Chicago Reading Framework
2-3 hours of daily instruction in literacy
Word knowledge (phonological awareness, letters, phonics, sight vocabulary, spelling, meaning vocabulary)
Fluency (accuracy, rate, expression)
Reading comprehension (important information, genre/text structure, strategies)
Writing
Chicago Reading Framework

12. The P3A Writing Curriculum
Purpose
Writers need to write for a variety of purposes
Process
Writers need to engage successfully in the writing process
Product
Writers need to produce effective pieces of writing
Audience
Writers need to meet the needs of a variety of audiences

13. Best review of writing instruction research in the past 20 years:
Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). A meta- analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 99, 445–476.
Research Review

14. Synthesized results from 123 experimental and quasi-experimental studies of writing instruction grades 4-12
Studies covered 11 different approaches to the teaching of writing
Quality of writing was the outcome measure
Graham & Perin Review

15. Approaches: Process-Writing
Extended writing opportunities
Writing for real audiences
Engaging in the writing process
High levels of student interaction and ownership
Personalized individual feedback and (perhaps) some systematic instruction
Approaches: Process-Writing

16. Explicit Instruction Grammar Sentence combining Strategy instruction
Explicit systematic instruction of parts of speech and sentences
Sentence combining
Creating more sophisticated sentences through combination of sentences
Strategy instruction
Teaching strategies for planning, revising, editing
Summarization
Explicit systematic instruction in how to summarize text
Text structure
Explicit systematic instruction in text organization

17. Scaffolding Prewriting Inquiry Procedural facilitation Peer assistance
Engaging students in prewriting practice
Inquiry
Helping students plan by analyzing data
Procedural facilitation
External prompts: guides, heuristics
Peer assistance
Having students work together
Models
Examinations of specific types of text
Product goals
Assigning writing goals
Feedback
Information is provided on the adequacy of the writing

18. Alternative Models Word Processing Extra writing
Provides technological support for students to use computers for writing and revising
Extra writing
Increased opportunities to write or to engage in a particular type of writing

19. Graham & Perin Results d n Strategy instruction .82 20 Summarization 4
Peer assistance
.75 7
Product goals
.70 5
Word processing
.55 18
Sentence combining
.50
Prewriting
.32
Process approach 21
Inquiry
Models
.25 6
Grammar
-.43 11

20. Graham & Perin Results (cont.)
Process writing had moderate effect on student writing in grades 4-6 when teachers received professional development, and no effects in grades 7-12
Though grammar instruction was not effective in any study, it was the control group treatment in all but one of the studies in this set
Strategy instruction was effective across all grade levels, but biggest effects on struggling students
Graham & Perin Results (cont.)

21. Graham & Perin Results (cont.)
Impossible to draw meaningful conclusions on text structure instruction (too few students, results too varied, etc.)
Inquiry studies were all done at grades and had small-to-moderate effects
All peer assistance studies had significant outcomes (grades 4-12)
Lots of unexplained variability in size of effect for word processing
Graham & Perin Results (cont.)

22. Graham & Perin Conclusions
Many approaches have sizable and reliable impacts on students’ writing quality (strategy teaching most effective, but many other things work, too)
Combinations might be best: explicitly teach writing strategies, involving students in peer guidance, using word processors, along with many of the other smaller-effects approaches might merit inclusion
Graham & Perin Conclusions

23. Guideline 2: Begin early with both reading and writing
Historically, instruction has treated reading as the enabling skill for writing
National Early Literacy Panel (Pre-k and K) findings
National Reading Panel (invented spelling)
Role of oral language
Guideline 2: Begin early with both reading and writing

24. Because it is possible to draw benefits from combining reading and writing early on, the emphasis here is on how to facilitate early writing
The next several slides focus on how to engage even very young preschoolers in oral composition
And on the importance of encouraging kids to write early (not just compose) through “invented spelling”
The goal in these early years should be on fluency

25. Language-Experience Approach
Shared experience with lots of discussion (opportunity to build knowledge and to enhance oral language)
Children dictate sentences about the shared experience
Teacher transcribes the text
Teacher reads the text
Children “read” along with the teacher
Children copy and illustrate the story or article
Language-Experience Approach

26. Invented spelling: Letter name
sep taddebar bopy sek alls nubrs egliow fall grapo fes pan staps wel attept letl git scichtap adsavin ricet kd clic cidejches
Invented spelling: Letter name

27. Invented spelling Stage 1: Precommunicative Spelling
Scribbles, letter-like forms, letters, numbers to represent message
May write from left-to-right, right-to-left, top-to-bottom, or randomly
No understanding of phoneme-grapheme relationships
May mix upper and lower case letters but preference is for upper case
Invented spelling

28. Invented spelling Stage 2: Semiphonetic Spelling
Shows awareness of the alphabetic principle, that letters represent sounds
Uses abbreviated one, two, or three letter spellings to represent entire words
Child uses letter-name strategy to represent sounds
Invented spelling

29. Invented spelling Stage 3: Semiphonetic Spelling
Represents all essential sound features
Uses particular spellings for long and short vowels, plural and past tense markers, and other aspects of spelling
Child chooses letters on basis of sound, but without regard for English letter sequences or other conventions
Invented spelling

30. Invented spelling Stage 4: Transitional Spelling
Uses basic spelling conventions
Begins to use morphological and visual information along with sounds
May include all appropriate letters but reverse some
May use alternate spellings for the same sound in different words, but only partially understands the rules
High percentage of accurate spellings
Invented spelling

31. Invented spelling Stage 5: Correct Spelling
Applies basic rules of the English spelling system
Growing accuracy with silent consonants, double consonants before affixes
Can recognize that a word doesn’t look right
Spells irregular spelling patterns correctly
Can spell a large number of words
Invented spelling

32. Difficulties in processing text as a reader or writing sufficient amounts as a writer
Fluency should be an early goal
Peter Elbow’s work on turning off your editor (limit the amount of early editing)
Writing marathons
Erin’s piece
Fluency instruction

33. Handwriting and spelling
Research shows that young children’s writing quality, quantity, and motivation are limited by handwriting
Some instruction in how to print or write cursive are beneficial to composition
Spelling inventions are a useful process, but these inventions are based on student knowledge from reading, phonics, spelling instruction
Handwriting and spelling

34. Guideline 3: Make reading-writing connections explicit
Memory tends to be function-specific
Teaching can help students to generalize or to apply in other settings
To do this instruction should highlight models of clear connections between reading and writing
And instruction should encourage reflection on reading-writing connections
Guideline 3: Make reading-writing connections explicit

35. Text structure Writing imitating literary models
Select text with strong structure or style (pattern books work great with younger children, more subtle—but still clear– structures for older students)
Read text to students to students
Discuss the pattern
Provide a structural prompt or frame
Group writing to start out
Read/write similar texts (process talks)
Text structure

36. “Whistle, Mary, whistle, And you shall have a cow
“Whistle, Mary, whistle, And you shall have a cow.” “I can’t whistle, Mother, Because I don’t know how.” And you shall have a …
Pattern writing

37. Whistle, Mary, Whistle frame
“Whistle Mary, whistle, and you shall have a cow.” _______ ________, ________, verb name verb and you shall have a ______.” gift I can’t ________, _________, verb name 2 because I _________________ rhyme reason
Whistle, Mary, Whistle frame

38. Structure Definition Key Words Description Time sequence Enumeration
“list” of facts, characteristics, traits, or features
Time sequence
facts, events, processes, or concepts in temporal order
on (date), not long after, now, as, before, after, when, finally
Enumeration
list of several descriptions, usually organized in some way
to begin with, first, secondly, next, then, finally, most important, also, in fact, for instance, for example
Cause and effect
showing facts, events, concepts occur because of other facts, events or concepts
because, since, therefore, consequently, as a result, this led to, so that, thus, if...then, accordingly
Problem/ solution
development of a problem (usually in form of cause and effect) and events that can interrupt this causal connection
Comparison/ contrast
likenesses or differences among facts, people, events, concepts
however, but, as well as, on the other hand, not only... but also, either...or, while, although, unless, similarly, yet

39. Character Change Chart
What is main character like at the beginning of the story?
What is the main character like at the end of the story? How has he or she changed?
Crisis
Given this character change, what do you think the author wanted you to learn? ________
________________________________________________________________________

40. Guideline 4: Emphasize content and process relationships.
Reading and writing share a body of underlying knowledge (letter-sound relationships, vocabulary, text structures, grammar, dependence on world knowledge, etc.)
Reading and writing also rely on a collection of cognitive processes (recall of prior knowledge, prediction, revision, etc.
Guideline 4: Emphasize content and process relationships.

41. Similar content/processes
Reading
Decoding
Vocabulary
Text organization
Reading fluency
Previewing/Predicting
Reviewing prior knowledge
Revising interpretations
Writing
Spelling
Vocabulary/diction
Text organization
Writing fluency
Planning/Prewriting
Reviewing prior knowledge
Revising text
Similar content/processes

42. Process similarities tend to be analogs (they are similar, but not really the same)
Process talks across reading and writing can be useful
Have students reflect on how reading and writing are similar
Guide them to think about their writing experiences during reading and their reading experiences during writing
Process talks

47. Guideline 5: Emphasize reader-writer connections
Emphasis here is on communication
Good reading instruction will foster author awareness
Good writing instruction will foster sensitivity to the needs of an audience
Guideline 5: Emphasize reader-writer connections

48. Author awareness Young children don’t know about authors
By ages 5 or 6, readers construct an egocentric author, but can recognize common style across books
By 12 or 13, readers recognize that authors have intent (and can do some low level text interpretation)
Still later, readers learn to use the author as an interpretive construct (e.g., sourcing)
Author awareness

49. Moffett’s Discourse Relations
Reflection (diaries, logs, daybooks)
Conversation (dialogues, notes, Twittering)
Correspondence (letters, s)
Publication (reports, blogs, “books”)
Moffett’s Discourse Relations

50. Guideline 5: Literacy must be learned across the curriculum
Reading and writing differ in various content areas
Texts from different fields different in content, structure, language, style, density, social nature of discourse
Kids need opportunities to read different kinds of text
Kids need opportunities to write different kinds of text
Guideline 5: Literacy must be learned across the curriculum

51. Guideline 6: Provide explicit instruction
Modeling
Explicit explanation of what you are doing (what, how, when, why)
Scaffolded practice
Collaborative practice
Individual/independent practice
Guideline 6: Provide explicit instruction

53. When does story take place? August 27, 1935
Think Sheets: Ideas Section Directions: How does Lydia Grace show strength during her year away? While reading, answer the questions with evidence from the story. These questions will help you to use narrative elements (plot, characters, and setting) to understand the story. The narrative elements are highlighted to assist you. The first one is done for you. 1. Page 25 Setting
Question
Evidence
When does story take place?
August 27, 1935
Where does Uncle Jim ask Lydia to go?
Grandma told us after supper that you want me to come to the city and live there until things get better.
How do we know the family is facing tough times?
Did she tell you that Papa had been out of work for a long time, and no one asks Mama to make dresses anymore?

54. How do we know Lydia Grace likes to garden?
2. Page 26 Characters
Question
Evidence
How do we know Lydia Grace likes to garden?
How does Lydia Grace feel about cooking?
How does Lydia Grace feel about Grandma?

55. Setting Plot Character Graphic Organizer
Directions: You have gathered evidence based on the narrative elements of The Gardener. Now it is time to plan. Select the 1 or 2 pieces of evidence for each of the elements below that you believe will help you to write an essay to explain how Lydia Grace showed her strength in her year away. You do not have to use complete sentences here.
Setting
Plot
Character

56. Essay Writing Guidelines
Extended Writing Directions: Use the evidence you selected for the graphic organizer on your planning page to write an essay responding to the question: How does Lydia Grace show her strength during her year away? You may continue writing on the next page.
Essay Writing Guidelines
Introduction: Tell what you are going to write about.
Body: Tell what happened to Lydia Grace acted during her year away and how she reacted to these events. Reread to make sure your evidence is logically connected.
Conclusion: Tell how you think Lydia Grace showed strength during her year away.

57. Some Useful Writing Resources
Culham, R. 6+1 Traits of writing. New York: Scholastic. Fisher, D., & Frey, N. Scaffolded writing instruction. New York: Scholastic. Graham, S., et al. Best practices in writing instruction. New York: Guilford. Temple, C., et al. The beginnings of writing. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Some Useful Writing Resources

58. Timothy Shanahan University of Illinois at Chicago shanahan@uic
Timothy Shanahan University of Illinois at Chicago