1. Antenna Theory and Measurements with the Model 8092 System
Antenna Fundamentals
Antenna Theory and Measurements
with the
Model 8092 System

2. FEATURES Low cost complete antenna measurement system.
No anechoic chamber required to obtain good results.
Covers several antenna technologies.
1GHz and 10GHz operation.
Usable from 1GHz to 30GHz with separate generators.
Software can be used in stand-alone mode.
Unique options: phasing system, Rotman lens based multi-beam array antenna.

3. Background Maxwell (1831-79) Fundamental equations. (Scottish)
Hertz ( ) First aerial propagation (German)
Marconi ( ) Transatlantic transmission (Italian)
DeForest (Triode tube 1920) Signal generators (American)
World War II ( ) Intense war-driven development

4. Definitions
An antenna is a device for radiating or receiving radio waves. Antennas act as the transition between waveguides or transmission lines and free space.

5. Definitions
An isotropic source is a hypothetical antenna which is non(all)directional, that is, which has equal radiation intensity in all directions
The dipole antenna is a simple type of antenna consisting of two rods or wires. The length of this antenna is L. The dipole is connected at the center to the transmitter through a transmission line.

6. Note balanced transmission line
The Dipole Antenna
Note balanced transmission line

7. Polar Coordinate System

8. Definitions
The current distribution, that is the magnitude of the alternating current along the length of a dipole antenna, is not necessarily uniform. Instead, it is zero at the ends, and may be highest at the center or at other points.

9. Current Distribution in a λ/2 Dipole

10. Definitions
An ideal dipole is another hypothetical antenna which is useful in the study of antennas. It can be considered to be a dipole of infinitesimal length with a uniform current distribution. The theoretical characteristics of an ideal dipole approximate those of electrically small dipole antennas.

11. Current Distribution in an Ideal Dipole (L <<λ)

12. Definitions
A radiation pattern is a three-dimensional, graphical representation of the far-field radiation properties of an antenna as a function of space coordinates. The far-field region is a region far enough for the radiation pattern to be independent of the distance from the antenna. The radiation pattern of a particular antenna can be measured by experiment or can be calculated, if the current distribution is known.

13. Definitions
Although the term "radiation" pattern is used, it applies just as well to receiving antennas. The reception pattern of an antenna is identical to its radiation (transmission) pattern. This is a general rule, known as the reciprocity theorem.

14. Definitions
Although the complete radiation pattern is a three-dimensional function, a pair of two-dimensional patterns are usually sufficient to characterize the directional properties of an antenna. In most cases, the two radiation patterns are measured in planes which are perpendicular to each other. A plane parallel to the electric field is chosen as one plane and the plane parallel to the magnetic field as the other. The two planes are called the E-plane and the H-plane, respectively.

15. E-plane (y-z or θ) and H-plane (x-y or φ) of a Dipole

16. Definitions
The half-power beamwidth (HPBW) of an antenna is the angular separation of the points in the main beam where the power equals one-half (-3 dB) the power radiated in the direction of maximum power

17. Theoretical E-plane Radiation Pattern of an Ideal Dipole Showing the Half-power Beamwidth

18. Radiation Pattern Characteristics
3 dB beamwidth
Sidelobes
Nulls
Front-to-back ratio
Gain (approximate)
Maximum signal position

21. Far Field Conditions How far is far enough? If D >2.5λ then
If λ/3 < D < 2.5λ then rff>5D

22. Antenna Field Regions

23. Antenna Input Impedance
Input Impedance (resistance + reactance)
Radiation Resistance (corresponds to energy that is transmitted)
Loss Resistance

24. Antenna Input Impedance
Input resistance (red line) and reactance (green line) of a dipole antenna as a function of antenna length

25. Baluns BALanced to UNbalanced device Similar to transformers
Used at RF
Usually band-limited
Improve matching and prevent unwanted currents on coaxial cable shields

26. Baluns
Balun for connecting a center-fed dipole to a coaxial cable

27. Baluns As Impedance Transformers
see p & 77 for excellent explanation
Transition from a 50Ώ coaxial cable to a 300 Ώ half-wave folded dipole through a four-to-one impedance transformation balun

28. Yagi (Parasitic) Antennas
Remember the near-field equations
The near-fields can be used to induce currents in adjacent antenna elements
With the proper delay (spacing and lengths), phases can be obtained that will add in certain directions and cancel in others
Reflector elements and director elements are thus used to give directivity to an antenna

29. Six-element Yagi antenna

30. Graph of gain versus the total number of elements of a typical Yagi antenna

31. Elements
Gain 3
8.7 4
9.9 5
10.5 6
11.1
Gain of a Yagi antenna for different numbers of elements (spacing = 0.5 λ)

32. Other Antennas Other dipoles Monopole Helical
Loop (electrically small & large)

33. Radiation patterns of the λ dipole (a) and the 3 λ /2 dipole (b)
note effect of increasing antenna size==sharper pattern...up to a certain point however. At 1.5 lambda, nulls appear because antenna size causes phase changes in the "array" affect.

34. Image Theory (a) Dipole over a perfectly conducting plane
(b) Equivalent model with image theory

35. λ /4 monopole over perfectly conducting ground plane
See p Since current is the same as for a dipole, and since V is half (half the distance) the R is half thatof a dipole, thus 37.5 ohms.

36. Coaxially-fed Monopole and Ground Plane
See p. 2-5 & 2-6.

37. Drooping monopole
See page 2-7 for excellent explanation.

38. « Large » loop antenna (L=λ)

39. « Small » loop antenna (L<<λ)

40. Helical Antenna (d~λ)
Axial-mode helical antenna : (a) geometry, (b) pencil-beam radiation pattern

41. Helical Antenna (d<<λ)
Normal-mode helical antenna: (a) geometry, (b) radiation pattern

42. Patch Antenna
Microstrip patch with microstrip transmission-line feed

43. Single Patch Antenna in the Antenna Training and Measuring System

44. Microstrip Patch Array

45. Overview of Lab-Volt Antenna Measurement System
Complete system to build antennas and to measure antenna patterns
2 ranges of operation (1 GHz and 10GHz)
With separate generator, can be used from 1GHz to over 30GHz
Contains wire antennas & aperture antennas

46. Wire Antennas versus Aperture Antennas
Wire antennas are usually operated at frequencies where the wavelength is larger than or approximately equal to the antenna length. Ex: dipoles, monopoles, folded dipoles…(λ≥L)
Aperture antennas are usually operated at frequencies where the wavelength is smaller than the antenna dimension. Ex: Horn antennas, parabolic reflectors, patch antennas…(λ≤L)

47. RF Generator

48. Antenna Positioner

49. Data Acquisition Interface

50. Power Supply

51. Set-up of the System
Rx (test) Ae
Tx Ae

52. System Connections

53. Equipment Required Antennas 1 GHz Antennas 10 GHz RF Generator
Antenna Positioner
Data Acquisition Interface
Power Supply
Antennas 1 GHz
Dipoles
Folded Dipole
λ /4 Monopole
Loop
Yagi-Uda
Antennas 10 GHz
Horns
Open-Ended Waveguide
Helical
Slot Array
Single Rectangular Patch
Parallel-Fed Patch Array
Series-Fed Patch Array

56. Overview of Lab-Volt Multi-Beam Array Antenna (Model 9556)
16 element array antenna
Uses Rotman lens to form beam
Allows easy beam-steering
Demonstrates array theory

57. Rotman Lens realized in Microstrip
TSA s
Rotman Lens realized in Microstrip

58. Ray Optics Model of the Rotman Lens

59. Antenna Elements of the MBAA
Note that antenna elements must be as omni-directional as possible to ensure as uniform a beam as possible.
Otherwise the beam will narrow as it scans further and further out.
(see Multibeam Array Antenna manual, pp 10-13)

60. The Major Components and Important Dimensions that make up a TSA

61. Different Taper Profiles used for a TSA

62. Overview of Lab-Volt Log-Periodic Antenna (Model 9562)

63. Overview of Lab-Volt Two-Element Phasing Kit (Model 9563)

64. Table of Contents Unit 1 Basic Operation
Ex. 1-1 Basic Principles, Operation and Adjustments
When you have completed this exercise, you will be able to set up and operate the PAA with the Digital Radar System.
Ex. 1-2 The True-Time Delay Rotman Lens
When you have completed this exercise, you will understand the operation principles of the Rotman lens.
Ex. 1-3 The Switching Matrix
When you have completed this exercise, you will understand the operation principles of the RF Switching Matrix.

65. Sample experiments Demonstrate software, set-up and operation. Ex. 1-1

66. Appendix
Other definitions & equations

67. Po Power fed into a transmitting antenna (watts)
Prad Power radiated by the transmitting antenna (watts)
 Radiation efficiency
For many antennas, the radiation efficiency is close to 1 (100%). However, for some antennas, such as short-wire antennas (for example, the ideal dipole), the radiation efficiency is quite small.
 Radiation intensity (watts per steradian)
A steradian (sr) is a unit solid angle, and there are 4 steradians in a sphere. We can therefore define the average radiation intensity as

68. D Directivity (unitless)
Directivity is the maximum radiation intensity in a given direction relative to the average radiation intensity (i.e. relative to the radiation intensity of an isotropic antenna transmitting the same total power).
G Antenna gain or Directive gain (unitless)
For a lossless antenna, the antenna gain or directive gain are the same as the directivity. However, for an antenna whose radiation efficiency  is less than 1 (100%), there is a difference.

69. a Antenna beam solid angle (steradians)
a corresponds to the solid angle which would be required to radiate all the power Prad at the maximum radiation intensity level max:
An alternate definition of directivity is then:
Ae Effective area or Effective aperture (square meters)
The effective area corresponds to the effective absorbance area presented by an antenna to an incident plane wave. For an aperture antenna, it is equal to or smaller than the physical aperture. The relationship between the gain and the wavelength is (with  and Ae in the same units):

70. ap Aperture efficiency or Antenna efficiency of an aperture antenna (unitless)
ap is the ratio between the effective area Ae and the physical area of the aperture in an aperture antenna. 50% is often a convenient approximate value to use for the aperture efficiency.
F/B Front-to-back ratio
A ratio comparing the signal strength in the desired direction of transmission or reception to the signal strength in the opposite direction. One use of this ratio is to describe the antenna's ability to discriminate between the signal coming from the front and the interfering signals coming from the rear when the antenna is used for reception.

71. Calculation of Intrinsic Impedance