1. Definitions
In statistics, a hypothesis is a claim or statement about a property of a population.
A hypothesis test is a standard procedure for testing a claim about a property of a population.
page 386 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition
Various examples are provided below definition box

2. Main Objectives We will study hypothesis testing for
population proportion p
population mean 
population standard deviation 
page 386 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition
Various examples are provided below definition box

3. Example
Claim: the XSORT method of gender selection increases the likelihood of having a baby girl. This is a claim about proportion (of girls) To test this claim 14 couples (volunteers) were subject to XSORT treatment. If 6 or 7 or 8 have girls, the method probably does not increase the likelihood of a girl. If 13 or 14 couples have girls, the method is probably increases the likelihood of a girl.

4. Rare Event Rule for Inferential Statistics
If, under a given assumption, the probability of a particular observed event is exceptionally small, we conclude that the assumption is probably not correct.
Introduce the word ‘significant’ in regard to hypothesis testing.

5. Components of a Formal Hypothesis Test

6. Null Hypothesis: H0
The null hypothesis (denoted by H0) is a statement that the value of a population parameter (such as proportion, mean, or standard deviation) is equal to some claimed value.
We test the null hypothesis directly.
Either reject H0 or fail to reject H (in other words, accept H0 ).
Emphasize “equal to”.

7. Alternative Hypothesis: H1
The alternative hypothesis (denoted by H1) is the statement that the parameter has a value that somehow differs from the null hypothesis.
The symbolic form of the alternative hypothesis must use one of these symbols: , <, > (not equal, less than, greater than)
Give examples of different ways to word “not equal to,” < and >, such as ‘is different from’, ‘fewer than’, ‘more than’, etc.

8. Example 1
Claim: the XSORT method of gender selection increases the likelihood of having a baby girl.
We express this claim in symbolic form: p>0.5
(here p denotes the proportion of baby girls)
Null hypothesis must say “equal to”, so
H0 : p=0.5
Alternative hypothesis must express difference:
H1 : p>0.5
Original claim is now the alternative hypothesis

9. Example 1 (continued)
We always test the null hypothesis. If we reject the null hypothesis, then the original clam is accepted. Final conclusion would be: XSORT method increases the likelihood of having a baby girl. If we fail to reject the null hypothesis, then the original clam is rejected. Final conclusion would be: XSORT method does not increase the likelihood of having a baby girl.

10. Example 2
Claim: for couples using the XSORT method the likelihood of having a baby girl is 50%
Express this claim in symbolic form: p=0.5
(again p denotes the proportion of baby girls)
Null hypothesis must say “equal to”, so
H0 : p=0.5
Alternative hypothesis must express difference:
H1 : p0.5
Original claim is now the null hypothesis

11. Example 2 (continued)
If we reject the null hypothesis, then the original clam is rejected. Final conclusion would be: for couples using the XSORT, the likelihood of having a baby girl is not 0.5 If we fail to reject the null hypothesis, then the original clam is accepted. Final conclusion would be: for couples using the XSORT the likelihood of having a baby girl is indeed equal to 0.5

12. Example 3
Claim: for couples using the XSORT method the likelihood of having a baby girl is at least 0.5
Express this claim in symbolic form: p≥0.5
(again p denotes the proportion of baby girls)
Null hypothesis must say “equal to”, so
H0 : p=0.5 (this agrees with the claim!)
Alternative hypothesis must express difference:
H1 : p<0.5
Original claim is now the null hypothesis

13. Example 3 (continued)
If we reject the null hypothesis, then the original clam is rejected. Final conclusion would be: for couples using the XSORT, the likelihood of having a baby girl is less 0.5 If we fail to reject the null hypothesis, then the original clam is accepted. Final conclusion would be: for couples using the XSORT the likelihood of having a baby girl is indeed at least 0.5

14. General rules:
If the null hypothesis is rejected, the alternative hypothesis is accepted.
If the null hypothesis is accepted, the alternative hypothesis is rejected.
Acceptance or rejection of the null hypothesis is an initial conclusion.
Always state the final conclusion expressed in terms of the original claim, not in terms of the null hypothesis or the alternative hypothesis.

15. Type I Error
A Type I error is the mistake of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true.
The symbol (alpha) is used to represent the probability of a type I error.
page 398 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition

16. Type II Error
A Type II error is the mistake of accepting the null hypothesis when it is actually false.
The symbol  (beta) is used to represent the probability of a type II error.
Page 398 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition

17. Type I and Type II Errors

18. Example
Claim: a new medicine has a greater success rate, p>p0, than the old (existing) one.
Null hypothesis: H0 : p=p0
Alternative hypothesis: H1 : p>p (agrees with the original claim)
Page 398 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition

19. Example (continued)
Type I error: the null hypothesis is true, but we reject it => we accept the claim, hence we adopt the new (inefficient, potentially harmful) medicine.
This is a critical error, should be avoided!
Type II error: the alternative hypothesis is true, but we reject it => we reject the claim, hence we decline the new medicine and continue using the old one (no harm…).
Page 398 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition

20. Significance Level
The probability of the type I error (denoted by ) is also called the significance level of the test. It characterizes the chances that the test fails (i.e., type I error occurs) It must be a small number. Typical values used in practice:  = 0.1, 0.05, or 0.01 (in percents, 10%, 5%, or 1%).

21. Testing hypothesis Step 1: compute Test Statistic
The test statistic is a value used in making a decision about the null hypothesis.
The test statistic is computed by a specific formula depending on the type of the test.

22. Testing a Claim About a Proportion
Section 8-3
Testing a Claim About a Proportion

23. p = (sample proportion) x n
Notation
n = number of trials 
p = (sample proportion) x n
p = population proportion (must be specified in the null hypothesis)
q = 1 – p

24. Requirements for Testing Claims About a Population Proportion p
1) The sample observations are a simple random sample.
2) The conditions for a binomial distribution are satisfied.
3) The conditions np  5 and nq  5 are both satisfied, so the binomial distribution of sample proportions can be approximated by a normal distribution with µ = np and  = npq . Note: p is the assumed proportion not the sample proportion.

25. Test Statistic for Testing a Claim About a Proportion
p – p pq n
z = 
Note: p is the value specified
in the null hypothesis; q = 1-p

26. Example 1 again:
Claim: the XSORT method of gender selection increases the likelihood of having a baby girl.
Null hypothesis: H0 : p=0.5
Alternative hypothesis: H1 : p>0.5
Suppose 14 couples treated by XSORT gave birth to 13 girls and 1 boy.
Test the claim at a 5% significance level

27. Compute the test statistic:

28. Draw the diagram (the normal curve)
On the diagram, mark a region of extreme values that agree with the alternative hypothesis:
Sample proportion of: or
Test Statistic z = 3.21

29. Critical Region
The critical region (or rejection region) is the set of all values of the test statistic that cause us to reject the null hypothesis.
For example, see the red-shaded region in the previous figure.

30. Critical Value
A critical value is a value that separates the critical region (where we reject the null hypothesis) from the values of the test statistic that do not lead to rejection of the null hypothesis.
See the previous figure where the critical value is z = It corresponds to a significance level of  = 0.05.

31. Significance Level
The significance level (denoted by ) is the probability that the test statistic will fall in the critical region (when the null hypothesis is actually true).

32. Conclusion of the test
Since the test statistic (z=3.21) falls in the critical region (z>1.645), we reject the null hypothesis. Final conclusion: the original claim is accepted, the XSORT method of gender selection indeed increases the likelihood of having a baby girl.

33. Types of Hypothesis Tests: Two-tailed, Left-tailed, Right-tailed
The tails in a distribution are the extreme regions where values of the test statistic agree with the alternative hypothesis
page 394 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition

34. Right-tailed Test H0: p=0.5 H1: p>0.5  is in the right tail
Points Right

35. Critical value for a right-tailed test
A right-tailed test requires one (positive) critical value: za

36. Left-tailed Test H0: p=0.5 H1: p<0.5  is in the left tail
Points Left

37. Critical value for a left-tailed test
A left-tailed test requires one (negative) critical value: ─za

38.  is divided equally between the two tails of the critical
Two-tailed Test
H0: p=0.5
H1: p0.5
 is divided equally between
the two tails of the critical
region
Means less than or greater than

39. Critical values for a two-tailed test
A two-tailed test requires two critical values: za/2 and ─za/2

40. P-Value
The P-value (or p-value or probability value) is the probability of getting a value of the test statistic that is at least as extreme as the one representing the sample data, assuming that the null hypothesis is true.

41. Example 1 (continued)
P-value is the area to the right of the test statistic z = 3.21.
We refer to Table A-2 (or use calculator) to find that the area to the right of z = 3.21 is
P-value =
page 394 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition

42. P-Value method: If P-value   , reject H0.
If P-value >  , fail to reject H0.
If the P is low, the null must go.
If the P is high, the null will fly.

43. Hence the null hypothesis must be rejected
Example 1 (continued)
P-value =
It is smaller than  = 0.05.
Hence the null hypothesis must be rejected
page 394 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition

44. P-Value Critical region in the right tail:
P-value = area to the right of the test statistic
Critical region in the left tail:
P-value = area to the left of the test statistic
Critical region in two tails:
P-value = twice the area in the tail beyond the test statistic (see the following diagram)

45. Procedure for Finding P-Values
Figure 8-5

46. Don’t confuse a P-value with a proportion p. Know this distinction:
Caution
Don’t confuse a P-value with a proportion p.
Know this distinction:
P-value = probability of getting a test statistic at least as extreme as the one representing sample data
p = population proportion
page 394 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition

47. Traditional method:
If the test statistic falls within the critical region, reject H0.
If the test statistic does not fall within the critical region, fail to reject H0 (i.e., accept H0).

48. P-Value method: If P-value is small (  ), reject H0.
If P-value is not small (> ), accept H0.
If the P is low, the null must go.
If the P is high, the null will fly.

49. Testing hypothesis by TI-83/84
Press STAT and select TESTS
Scroll down to 1-PropZTest press ENTER
Type in p0: (claimed proportion, from H0)
x: (number of successes)
n: (number of trials)
choose H1: p ≠p <p >p0
(two tails) (left tail) (right tail)
Press on Calculate
Read the test statistic z=…
and the P-value p=…
Page 218 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition.

50. Do we prove a claim?
A statistical test cannot prove a hypothesis or a claim.
Our conclusion can be only stated like this: the available evidence is not strong enough to warrant rejection of a hypothesis or a claim (such as not enough evidence to convict a suspect).
page 396 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition
The term ‘accept’ is somewhat misleading, implying incorrectly that the null has been proven. The phrase ‘fail to reject’ represents the result more correctly.

51. Testing a Claim About a Mean:  Known
Section 8-4
Testing a Claim About a Mean:  Known

52. Notation = sample mean m = claimed population mean (from H0)
n = sample size
= sample mean
m = claimed population mean (from H0)
 = known value of the population standard deviation

53. Requirements for Testing Claims About a Population Mean (with  Known)
1) The value of the population standard deviation  is known.
2) Either or both of these conditions is satisfied: The population is normally distributed or n > 30.

54. Test Statistic for Testing a Claim About a Mean (with  Known)
x – µ
z =  n

55. Example:
People have died in boat accidents because an obsolete estimate of the mean weight of men (166.3 lb) was used.
A random sample of n = 40 men yielded the mean
= lb. Research from other sources suggests that the population of weights of men has a standard deviation given by  = 26 lb.
Test the claim that men have a mean weight greater than lb.

56. Example:
Requirements are satisfied:  is known (26 lb), sample size is 40 (n > 30)
We can express claim as  > lb
It does not contain equality, so it is the alternative hypothesis.
H0:  = lb null hypothesis
H1:  > lb alternative hypothesis (and original claim)

57. Example: Let us set significance level to  = 0.05 Next we calculate z
It is a right-tailed test, so P-value is the area is to the right of z = 1.52;

58. Example:
Table A-2: area to the left of z = 1.52 is , so the area to the right is 1 – = The P-value is
The P-value of is greater than the significance level of  = 0.05, we fail to reject the null hypothesis.
 = 166.3 or
z = 0
z = 1.52
P-value =

59. Example: The traditional method:
Use critical value z = instead of finding the P-value. Since z = does not fall in the critical region, again fail to reject the null hypothesis.

60. Testing hypothesis by TI-83/84
Press STAT and select TESTS
Scroll down to Z-Test press ENTER
Choose Data or Stats. For Stats:
Type in m0: (claimed mean, from H0)
s: (known st. deviation)
x: (sample mean)
n: (sample size)
choose H1: m ≠m <m >m0
(two tails) (left tail) (right tail)
Page 218 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition.

61. (continued)
Press on Calculate
Read the test statistic z=…
and the P-value p=…

62. Testing a Claim About a Mean:  Not Known
Section 8-5
Testing a Claim About a Mean:  Not Known

63. Notation = sample mean m = claimed population mean (from H0)
n = sample size
= sample mean
m = claimed population mean (from H0)
s = sample standard deviation

64. Requirements for Testing Claims About a Population Mean (with  Not Known)
1) The value of the population standard deviation  is not known.
2) Either or both of these conditions is satisfied: The population is normally distributed or n > 30.

65. Test Statistic for Testing a Claim About a Mean (with  Not Known)
x – µ
t = s n
P-values and Critical Values
Found in Table A-3 or by calculator
Degrees of freedom (df) = n – 1

66. Example:
People have died in boat accidents because an obsolete estimate of the mean weight of men (166.3 lb) was used.
A random sample of n = 40 men yielded the mean
= lb and standard deviation s = lb. Do not assume that the population standard deviation  is known.
Test the claim that men have a mean weight greater than lb.

67. Example:
Requirements are satisfied:  is not known, sample size is 40 (n > 30)
We can express claim as  > lb
It does not contain equality, so it is the alternative hypothesis.
H0:  = lb null hypothesis
H1:  > lb alternative hypothesis (and original claim)

68. Example: Let us set significance level to  = 0.05 Next we calculate t
df = n – 1 = 39
area of 0.05, one-tail yields
critical value t = 1.685;

69. Example:
t = does not fall in the critical region bounded by t = 1.685, we fail to reject the null hypothesis.
 = 166.3 or
z = 0
t = 1.52
Critical value t = 1.685

70. Example: Final conclusion:
Because we fail to reject the null hypothesis, we conclude that there is not sufficient evidence to support a conclusion that the population mean is greater than lb.

71. Normal Distribution Versus Student t Distribution
The critical value in the preceding example was t = 1.782, but if the normal distribution were being used, the critical value would have been z = The Student t critical value is larger (farther to the right), showing that with the Student t distribution, the sample evidence must be more extreme before we can consider it to be significant.

72. P-Value Method Use software or a TI-83/84 Plus calculator.
If technology is not available, use Table A-3 to identify a range of P-values (this will be explained in Section 8.6)

73. Testing hypothesis by TI-83/84
Press STAT and select TESTS
Scroll down to T-Test press ENTER
Choose Data or Stats. For Stats:
Type in m0: (claimed mean, from H0)
x: (sample mean)
sx: (sample st. deviation)
n: (sample size)
choose H1: m ≠m <m >m0
(two tails) (left tail) (right tail)
Page 218 of Elementary Statistics, 10th Edition.

74. (continued)
Press on Calculate
Read the test statistic t=…
and the P-value p=…

75. Testing a Claim About a Standard Deviation or Variance
Section 8-6
Testing a Claim About a Standard Deviation or Variance

76. Notation n = sample size s = sample standard deviation
s2 = sample variance
 = claimed value of the population standard deviation (from H0 )
2 = claimed value of the population variance (from H0 )

77. Requirements for Testing Claims About  or  2
1. The sample is a simple random sample.
2. The population has a normal distribution. (This is a much stricter requirement than the requirement of a normal distribution when testing claims about means.)

78. Chi-Square Distribution
Test Statistic

79. Critical Values for Chi-Square Distribution
Use Table A-4.
The degrees of freedom df = n –1.

80. Table A-4 Table A-4 is based on cumulative areas from the right.
Critical values are found in Table A-4 by first locating the row corresponding to the appropriate number of degrees of freedom (where df = n –1).
Next, the significance level  is used to determine the correct column.
The following examples are based on a significance level of  = 0.05.

81. Critical values Right-tailed test: needs one critical value
Because the area to the right of the critical value is 0.05, locate 0.05 at the top of Table A-4.

82. Critical values Left-tailed test: needs one critical value
With a left-tailed area of 0.05, the area to the right of the critical value is 0.95, so locate 0.95 at the top of Table A-4.

83. Critical values Two-tailed test: needs two critical values
Critical values are two different positive numbers, both taken from Table A-4
Divide a significance level of 0.05 between the left and right tails, so the areas to the right of the two critical values are and 0.025, respectively.
Locate and at top of Table A-4

84. Critical values for a two-tailed test

85. Finding a range for P-value
A useful interpretation of the P-value: it is observed level of significance.
Compare your test statistic c2 with critical values shown in Table A-4 on the line with df=n-1 degrees of freedom.
Find the two critical values that enclose your test statistic. Determine the significance levels a1 and a2 for those two critical values.
Your P-value is between a1 and a (see examples below)

86. Examples:
Right-tailed test: If the test statistic c2 is between critical values corresponding to the areas a1 and a2 , then your P-value is between a1 and a2 .
Left-tailed test: If the test statistic c2 is between critical values corresponding to the areas 1-a1 and 1-a2 , then your P-value is between a1 and a2 .

87. Examples:
Two-tailed test: If the test statistic c2 is between critical values corresponding to the areas a1 and a2 , then your P-value is between 2a1 and 2a2 .
Two-tailed test: If the test statistic c2 is between critical values corresponding to the areas 1-a1 and 1-a2 , then your P-value is between 2a1 and 2a2 .
(Note: for two-tailed tests, multiply the areas by two)

88. Finding the exact P-value by TI-83/84
Use the test statistic c2 and the calculator function c2 cdf to compute the area of the tail:
c2 cdf(teststat,999,df) gives the area of the right tail
(to the right from the test statistic)
c2 cdf(-999,teststat,df) gives the area of the left tail
(to the left from the test statistic)
Multiply the area of the tail by 2
if you have a two-tailed test