1. Laboratory Management
Problem-Solving –
The Decision-Making Process

2. Introduction
The most important skill that have an impact on the effectiveness of a laboratory supervisor is his decision-making ability
The decision is the core of administrative action
Any administrative activity, planning, organizing, directing or controlling requires the manager to be a decision-maker
In fact, all organizational activity can be looked at as a series of decisions
Managerial decision-making is the selection of a preferred course of action from two or more alternatives after weighing the effects of the various alternatives in light of organizational goals

3. 1- AREAS OF CONCERN IN DECISION - MAKING
Before attempting to make any management decision, there are several areas of concern to which a laboratory manager must be precise
Quality of the decision
Acceptance of and commitment to the decision
The speed of the decision
The nature of the value judgments in the decision
The cost of the decision

4. A- Quality of the decision
In order to make a quality decision, the manager must have the appropriate information
The creative talents of several people are beneficial in generating possible alternatives
Seeking specific skills necessary to complement a given alternative
Seeking ideas of peers, subordinates and superiors to gain a broader point of view

5. B- Acceptance of and commitment to the decision
This concern is fundamental to management, which must get things done through people
Commitment is essential on the part of those who must implement the decision
There are times it is appropriate to involve the laboratory staff in the decision- making process
will result in added quality to the decision, increase the acceptance and commitment
Finally, acceptance of the decision by other departments and outside organizations who are affected by is important

6. C- The speed of the decision
The time element must obviously be considered
If a decision is to be made immediately, it is unlikely that staff can be involved
Even if the decision is not a quick one, the laboratory manager must consider the length of time it will take to involve appropriate parties
If the decision process must be accelerated, there is generally a trade-off in quality and acceptance of the decision

7. D- The nature of the value judgment in the decision
All decisions involve a value judgment in terms of what is beneficial or non beneficial and important or non-important in projecting the probable outcomes of the decision
There are times when individual goals and organizational goals do not mesh because of differencing value judgments
value judgment : a personal opinion about how good or bad someone or something is

8. E- The cost of the decision
The use of organizational resources to make decisions costs money
The time of the people involved in the decision is an important component
Often it is difficult to quantitate the appropriate costs that will yield the best decision in terms of quality, acceptance, speed and values

9. 2- DECISION-MAKING: APPROACHES AND EFFECTS
There is a variety of decision-making management styles, ranging from total dictatorship to total abdication
Management in the clinical laboratory is full of decisions
Some supervisors only make decisions for routine situations, therefore they have a lack of concern about approaches to decision-making
These Supervisors more than others need to examine the decision-making process and the effect of various approaches on quality, acceptance, speed, value and cost

10. 2- DECISION-MAKING: APPROACHES AND EFFECTS
Making wise management decisions is not an intuitive skill
This skill more than other management skills requires an experiential learning period

11. 2- DECISION-MAKING: APPROACHES AND EFFECTS
Breathless decisions 
Made on the spur of a moment
Making too many is bad sign
Signal a failure to plan and Resulting in crisis management
Contrasted with the breathless decision are the trade-off or hold-off decision habits
Solve easy problems and shelf the rest
Relevant facts become hidden in a mass of irrelevancies
The following Table illustrates a variety of dangerous decision-making habits

12. Breathless decisions Trade-off decisions Hold-off decisions
What You Do
Why 
Act without thinking 
Submit to time pressure 
Limit alternatives
Succumb to emotion 
Overreact
Avoid pain 
Oversimplify
Avoid thinking 
Solve the wrong problem    
Trade-off decisions 
Placate others 
Seek harmony 
Submit to authority 
Focus on tasks, not goals 
Solve easy problems 
Think short-range 
Tolerate partial solutions 
Hope to reduce risk of failure 
Repeat past mistakes 
Desire to conform
Hold-off decisions 
What You Do 
Generate multiple, superficial alternatives
Fear of unknown
Gather irrelevant facts 
Accept unworkable constraints 
Fight the problem
Wait for more favorable conditions
Hop from problem to problem  
Wait for someone else to act 
Rationalize delay

13. Approaches to decision-making
There are four typical decision-making approaches along the spectrum from dictatorship to abdication
Authoritarian
Democratic
Consensus
Laissez-Fair

14. Approaches to decision-making
Authoritarian
Laboratory manager views himself as a central authority, more knowledgeable than his staff because he has access to the big picture of the laboratory
His communication is one way-down the organizational structure
He pays little attention to the ideas and proposals of his staff
Decisions of this type are of poor quality, least acceptance and commitment, and least concern for value factors
The true worth of this approach in the speed at which a decision is reached because the laboratory manager is the only one involved

15. Approaches to decision-making
Democratic
Laboratory manager reach decisions by majority vote
There is no polling process, but he personally makes the decision after talking a straw vote
The majority will be committed to implement decisions
The quality, acceptance, and staff feelings are improved over the authoritarian approach
The time taken to reach the decisions is longer

16. Approaches to decision-making
Consensus
All members of the staff are involved
The manager works hard at getting all members at least partially agree with decision
Manager approaches the alternatives from a logical point of view and avoids arguing his own viewpoint
The consensus format yields the highest quality decision, since everyone explains the rationale for his favored alternative
This approach will result in increased acceptance and commitment
This approach can be time-consuming

17. Approaches to decision-making
Laissez - Fair
The manager abdicated from his administrative responsibilities
The manager role is supportive but leaves the planning, organizing, directing and controlling of the process up to his staff
The manager is only a figurehead, with his staff in control
This is the least effective approach, if a quality decision is reached, it will usually be because of the presence of an informal leader

18. Approaches to decision-making
The following table shows how decision -making is related to the four basic functions of a manager: planning, organizing, directing and controlling

19. Approaches to decision-making

20. Approaches to decision-making
Participation in making decisions always lowers the resistance to decision, but increases the time required to implements them
No single decision-making approach is best for all situations
To be effective, laboratory manager should vary his decision-making approach depending on the situation
Authoritarian approach is the best in an emergency situation
The democratic approach is useful when deciding on a color scheme for new laboratory furniture
The Consensus approach when deciding who should work various scheduled holidays
The abdicating as in the Laissez – Fair approach is perhaps only when decisions regarding a group gathering is being arranged

21. Approaches to decision-making
The effects of various levels of participation on the decision - making process

22. 3- HUMAN FACTORS IN DECISION-MAKING
A variety of factors affect the managers approach to decision-making including economic, social, cultural, political as well as human factors
5 factors were described regarding the human factors influences
Manager's personal value systems
Biases, Attitude, personal beliefs
Managers perception of the situation
Manager's judgment and creativity will reflect how he perceives the problem or situation requiring a choice

23. 3- HUMAN FACTORS IN DECISION-MAKING
Limitations in human processing of information
Different capacities for mentally storing and sorting out pits & pieces of information related to the decision at hand
Manager is conscious and responsive to Political and power behaviors relative to any given selection
The constraint of time
Limitation of time available for manager to assess and study the situation before making the decision
In conclusion, in any complex decision where personal or behavior factors apply, the individual's preference will dominate the results.

24. 4- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS
Problem-solving and decision making are not synonymous
They are similar, but problem solving has several facets that separate it as a managerial skill from typical decision making
The following Figure graphically describes a brief but comprehensive a flow of events in the problem-solving process:

25. 4- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS

26. 4- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS
Step 1. Definition of the Problem
As in the treatment of disease, therapy only effective if correct diagnosis was made
The manager must look beyond the symptoms of the problem and focus on the real issue
Often it is a symptoms, such as absenteeism, which calls attention to the fact that a problem exists
Symptoms: adverse events or things which are present in an operation but have not yet developed to the point of emerging as basic deviations
Basic deviations: they are problems that are referred to as “glaring mistakes”
Effect problem: surface problem
Causal problems: root problems

27. 4- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS
Manager who focuses on an effect problem is attempting to achieve a temporary solution whereas addressing a casual problem should prevent recurrence of the deviation
Some problems will be inherited
Some problems resulting from decisions made elsewhere in the organizational hierarchy
Some problems resulting from one's own doing
Regardless the origin of the problem, the solution must still be made within the framework of the situation

28. 4- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS
Step 2. Fact – gathering
Once the problem identified, the manager should begin to gather information needed for developing alternative solutions
Seeking out the facts surrounding the decision situations, as are constraints and assumptions
Constraints are factors that limit the scope of alternatives
Assumptions are applied to factors in an effort to simplify the problem and it solvable
Fact gathering requires a search for pertinent information from persons directly involved in the problem, from books, other people and from experts

29. 4- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS
Step 3. Development of alternative solutions
The generation of possible solutions calls for creative thinking
Past experience, similarities, differences
Past experience can never be fully sufficient in developing alternative solutions but acts as a guide
Seeking information from others who solved a similar problem

30. 4- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS
Step 4. Weighing of alternative solutions
Stating the advantages and disadvantages of each alternative
How each alternative will effectively accomplish the objectives and requirements of a satisfactory solution
Consideration should be given to the question of where a chosen alternative will eliminate reoccurrence of the problem or generate another in its place

31. 4- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS
Step 5. Selection of solutions
In choosing solution consider quality, acceptance, speed, value or cost
When the decision is made, it is often wise to discuss it with someone who has considerable problem - solving skills

32. 4- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS
Step 6. Implementation of the solution
A critical step
The most time consuming
If not properly implemented, it is useless
Involve those who are directly affected by the problem
Inspect the details of the decision and develop necessary procedures
Participation by all levels - management and employees alike

33. 4- STEPS IN THE PROBLEM - SOLVING PROCESS
Step 7. Measurement of consequences
Not all decisions will have the effect that was planned
Consequences should be evaluated
Problem - solving as a management skill is probably best developed through repeated exposure with guidance in the laboratory setting