1. Syntax The analysis of sentence structure
Dr. Alok K Das

2. Syntax in Linguistic Tree
Linguistics
Sounds of language
Grammar
Meaning
Phonetics
Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Semantics
Pragmatics
Syntax
Dr Alok K Das

3. Why syntax? It’s part of Linguistics
It’s part of the grammar of every language
And the grammar of a language is part of a native speaker’s linguistic knowledge
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

4. Reasons for studying syntax
Infinity of expressions
There is an infinite number of possible utterances in every language
It is obvious that all these utterances cannot be stored in our brains
Our knowledge of a language consists of
A finite number of words (the lexicon; the “dictionary in your head”), and
Rules (the grammar of the language)
It is the job of the syntactician (and the morphologist) to find out what these rules are
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

5. Language acquisition Everyone who can speak knows how to use the rules
and it is amazing that children can do it so fast
But nobody can really state exactly what the rules are!
Understanding syntax (and morphology) can help researchers to understand how young children learn their native language
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

6. Universal grammar Theory of Chomsky
UG has Principles, true of all languages
All languages have the same underlying structure
e.g. all languages have nouns and verbs
and Parameters, whose setting varies from language to language
English and Chinese SVO; Japanese SOV
Spanish and Chinese pro-drop; English not pro-drop
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

7. All languages have constituents
Take a simple sentence
Johnny danced
We can call the sentence S, and label the syntactic categories N and V S N
Johnny V
danced
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

8. Phrase structure grammar
N and V aren’t always very good labels
Johnny is similar to the handsome student, because they are both the same kind of constituent
They are both Noun Phrases
We can remove Johnny and add the handsome student, and the sentence structure is still similar S NP
The handsome student VP
danced
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

9. Different sentence, same constituents
Now let’s add an object
danced the lambada is the same kind of constituent as danced
a VP
You can swap danced for danced the lambada and the basic structure is the same NP
The handsome student VP
danced the lambada
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

10. What are the NP and VP? The frog ate the lizard.
The frog sat on the lilypad.
The fat frog ate the long lizard slowly.
The fat frog with a lizard in its mouth sat on the lilypad.
The fat frog who was sitting on the lilypad with a lizard in its mouth danced the lambada.
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

11. Phrase structure rules
Now, you know this phrase structure rule:
S  NP VP (a Sentence comprises a Noun Phrase followed by a Verb Phrase)
Draw a tree for the phrase Emma drinks
Here are two more phrase structure rules:
VP  V NP
NP  N
Think about that carefully
Now, draw a tree with more detail
For the sentence Emma drinks whisky
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

12. Now let’s change the NP rule
First, DET means determiner
Function words like the, a, this, several
NP  (DET) N
That means a noun phrase can have a determiner, and it must have a noun
Now you can diagram Johnny danced the lambada in a bit more detail than I did on the other slide
Remember:
S  NP VP
VP  V NP)
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

13. Now let’s change the NP rule again
Such that we have
S  NP VP
VP  V NP
NP  (DET) (ADJ) N
Now you can diagram this sentence
The unhappy book ate the green lambada
The sentence is syntactically well-formed, by the way
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

14. Grammatical or Ungrammatical:
1. The boy found the ball
2. The boy found quickly
3. The boy found in the house
4. The boy found the ball in the house
5. Disa slept the baby
6. Disa slept soundly
Find: Transitive verb (with object)
Sleep: Intransitive verb (no object)
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

15. Syntactic Categories Lexical categories Examples Noun (N)
Verb (V)
Adjective (A)
Preposition (P)
Adverb (Adv)
Examples
moisture, policy
melt, remain
good, intelligent
to, near
slowly, now
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

16. Syntactic Categories Non-lexical categories Examples Determiner (Det)
Degree word (Deg)
Qualifier (Qual)
Auxiliary (Aux)
Conjunction (Con)
Examples
the, this
very, more
always, perhaps
will, can
and, or
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

17. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.
a. The glass suddenly broke.
b. A jogger ran towards the end of the lane.
c. The peaches never appear quite ripe.
d. Gillian will play the trumpet and the drums in the orchestra.
Det / N / Adv / V
Det / N / V / P / Det / N / P / Det / N
Det / N / Qual / V / Deg / A
N / Aux / V / Det / N / Conj / Det / N / P / Det / N
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

18. Phrases NP : Noun Phrase The car, a clever student VP : Verb Phrase
study hard, play the guitar
PP : Prepositional Phrase
in the class, above the earth
AP : Adjective Phrase
very tall, quite certain
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

19. Phrase Structure Rules
NP  (Det) N (PP)
PP  P NP
The bus in the yard NP
The bus (NP)
Det N
Det N PP
The
bus P NP
Det N
The
bus in
the
yard
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

20. Phrase Structure Rules
VP  V (NP) (PP)
S  NP (Aux) VP
took the money from the bank VP
took the money (VP) V NP V NP PP
Det N
Det N P NP
took
the
money
Det N
took
the
money
from
the
bank
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

21. Draw the tree diagram. 1. repaired the telephone
2. the success of the program
3. a film about pollution
4. move towards the window
5. cast a spell on the broomstick
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

22. The main structure rules
1. S  NP (Aux) VP
2. NP  (Det) (AP) N (PP)
3. VP  V (NP) (PP) (Adv)
4. PP  P NP
5. AP  A (PP)
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

23. Example The old tree swayed in the wind S Aux NP VP Det Adj N V PP P
past
swayed in
the
wind
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

24. Example The children put the toy in the box S NP VP Det N V NP PP Det
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

25. Ambiguity: a word, phrase or sentence with multiple meanings
Synthetic buffalo hides (NP)
Synthetic buffalo hides (NP)
Synthetic buffalo hides
Synthetic buffalo hides
Buffalo hides that are synthetic.
Hides of synthetic buffalo.
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

26. Ambiguities often lead to humorous results
For sale: an antique desk suitable for lady with thick legs and large drawers.
 what does “thick legs and large drawers” refer to?
The desk or the lady?
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

27. Structural Ambiguity The boy saw the man with the telescopeNP
Aux VP
Det N V NP PP
Det N P NP
Det N
The
boy
past
saw
the
man
with
the
telescope
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

28. Structural Ambiguity The boy saw the man with the telescopeNP
Aux VP
Det NP N V
Det N PP P NP
Det N
The
boy
past
saw
the
man
with
the
telescope
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

29. The magician touched the child with the wand.
Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence:
The magician touched the child with the wand.
Be sure you indicate which meaning goes with which tree.
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

30. Declarative – Interrogative
Move the auxiliary to the left of the subject.
The boy will leave. S
Will the boy leave? S NP
Aux VP
Aux NP VP
Det N V
Det N V
The
boy
will
leave
Will
the
boy
leave
The deep structure
The surface structure
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

31. The Wh Movement S NP Aux VP Det NP N V Det N The man should repair
Surface structure: Which car should the man repair?
Deep structure: S NP
Aux VP
Det NP N V
Det N
The
man
should
repair
which
car
Syntax Dr Alok K Das

32. Draw the deep structure of the following sentences
Will the boss hire Hillary?
Is that player leaving the team?
Who should the director call?
What is Joanne eating?
Syntax Dr Alok K Das