1. Social Psychology Chapter 13
AP Psychology
Alice F. Short
Hilliard Davidson High School

2. Chapter Preview Social Cognition Social Behavior Social Influence
Intergroup Relations
Close Relationships
Social Psychology and Health and Wellness

3. Social Psychology
social psychology - the study of how people think about, influence, and relate to other people
social cognitions
social influences
social relations

4. Social Cognition
How do people select, interpret, remember, and use social information?
Person Perception
physical attractiveness
stereotype – a generalization about a group’s characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to another
natural = cognitive processing limitations
“Beautiful is good” stereotype
self-fulfilling prophecy – expectations cause individuals to act in ways that serve to make the expectations come true
teacher expectations of “late bloomers”  expectations met
composite faces, symmetry, and youthfulness
first impressions
100 milliseconds  form first impression
attribution – the process by which we come to understand the cause of others’ behavior and form an impression of them as individuals

5. Social Cognition: Attribution Theory
attributions - explanations for why people behave the way they do
attribution theory - attempt to discover underlying causes of behavior as part of their effort to make sense of the behavior
internal/external causes
internal: traits and abilities
external: social pressure, aspects of situation
stable/unstable causes
hostile or bad mood?
controllable/uncontrollable causes
should we hold it against you?

6. Social Cognition: Attribution
attribution errors
actor – person who produces the behavior
observer – person who offers a causal explanation for actor’s behavior
observers often explain actors’ behaviors incorrectly
fundamental attribution error
overestimate the importance of internal traits
underestimate the importance of external causes
Zimbardo on Abu Ghraib prison – TED TALKS
actors often explain own behavior in terms of external causes

7. Fundamental Attribution Error

8. Social Cognition
heuristics - cognitive shortcuts that speed decision making
stereotypes = type of heuristic
false consensus effect
overestimating the degree to which everyone else thinks or acts the way we do
use our outlook to predict that of others

9. A SHORT Time to Ponder
How do politicians use the false consensus effect to their advantage?

10. The Self as a Social Object
self-esteem – the degree to which we have positive or negative feelings about ourselves
positive illusions – views of ourselves that are not necessarily rooted in reality
self-serving bias – tendency to take credit for success and deny responsibility for failure
internal attributions
external attributions
self-objectification – tendency to see oneself primarily as an object in the eyes of others
DOCUMENTARY: MISSRepresentation

11. A SHORT Time to Ponder
What’s so wrong with average? (By definition, 50 percent of people will always be below average.)
In what ways do you objectify yourself?
Would you perform differently depending on the way you were dressed?

12. Social Cognition: The Self as Object
stereotype threat - a self-fulfilling fear about being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype about our group
living “down” to expectations
African American males = work academically by checking box
White males = worse at sports when reminded
Asian women = better at math by checking box “Asian” box, worse by checking “female” box
social comparison - process by which we evaluate our thoughts, feelings, behaviors, and abilities in relation to other people
social comparison theory – when no objective means are available to evaluate our opinions and abilities, we compare ourselves with others

13. A SHORT Time to Ponder
What stereotype should you think about for yourself before starting the AP Psychology test, or any academic test for that matter?

14. Attitudes attitudes - beliefs about people, places, and ideas
Can attitudes predict behavior?
when attitudes are strong
when attitudes are rehearsed
when person has vested interest
Can behavior predict attitudes?
cognitive dissonance – an individuals psychological discomfort (dissonance) caused by two inconsistent thoughts
uneasy when behavior ≠beliefs
effort justification – type of dissonance reduction, means rationalizing the amount of effort we put into something
low money
hazing
self perception theory – Daryl Bem’s (1967) theory on how behaviors influence attitudes, stating that individuals make inferences about their attitudes by perceiving their behavior
I do something; therefore, I must like it.

15. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Discomfort caused by two dissonant thoughts
thoughts of ones attitude v. ones behavior
Dissonance reduced by
changing behaviors to match attitude
changing attitudes to match behavior

16. Self-Perception Theory
self-perception theory - individuals make inferences about their own attitudes by perceiving their own behavior, especially if their attitudes are unclear
cognitive dissonance and self-perception theory  explain the connection between attitudes and behavior

17. Attitudes and Behavior

18. Persuasion 2 Essential Questions:
What makes an individual decide to give up an original attitude and adopt a new one?
What makes a person decide to act on an attitude that he or she has not acted on before

19. Persuasion The Communicator (credibility)
trustworthiness, expertise, attractiveness, likeability, similarity
Medium (television versus print) – but should it?
The Target (age, attitude, strength)
Message (rational versus emotional strategy)
elaboration likelihood model:
central route – sound, logical argument
effective: ability and motivation to pay attention to the facts
peripheral route – non-message factors (credibility, attractiveness, emotional appeals)
effective: people are not paying attention; don’t want to expend mental effort

20. Persuasion Successful Persuasion Resisting Persuasion
foot-in-the-door technique
small request  big demand
door-in-the-face technique
biggest demand  smaller “concessionary demand”
reciprocity and obligation
SHORT DISCUSSION: How do you use either of these techniques on your parents?
Resisting Persuasion
inoculation – William McGuire
introducing a weak version of a persuasive message and allowing them time to argue against it (like a vaccine)
inoculation: Credit card companies prey on college students!

21. Social Behavior we behave in social ways toward the people around us
two extremes of human social activity…
altruism (prosocial behavior)
aggression

22. Prosocial Behavior
altruism (prosocial behavior) - an unselfish interest in helping someone else
random acts of kindness
debate: is it possible to be completely altruistic?
Ayn Rand: opposed to altruism… why?
egoism – giving to another person to ensure reciprocity; to gain self-esteem; to present one-self as powerful, competent, or caring; or to avoid censure from ones self and others for failing to live up to society’s expectations
reciprocity

23. Prosocial Behavior explanations of altruism
evolutionary – promoting survival of family’s genes
research: humans not necessarily self-centered
animals: demonstrate altruism
psychological factors
mood
happy people = more helpful
feelings of elevation (video: photo shoot)
empathy – a person’s feelings of oneness with the emotional state of another
sociocultural factors
market economies – more prosocial behavior (trust = requirement)
investment in established religion – emphasis on golden rule
gender
women: more helpful in nurturing situations
men: more helpful in dangerous situations and when feel competent to help

24. Prosocial Behavior The Bystander Effect Media Influence
Darley and Latané (1968)
individuals are less likely to help in an emergency when others are present then when the observer is alone
diffusion of responsibility
Media Influence
listening to music with prosocial lyrics  increases kindness
TV shows with positive content  increase prosocial behavior
Lemmings video game  prosocial behavior

25. A SHORT Time to Ponder
Do you believe that human nature is more selfish or altruistic?
“Happy people just don’t kill their husbands, they just don’t.” – Elle Woods, Legally Blonde
Do your favorite TV shows promote prosocial behavior?
Should TV be required to promote prosocial behavior?
Can you think of a time when altruism is linked to aggression?

26. Aggression
aggression – social behavior whose objective is to harm someone, either physically or verbally
biological influences
evolutionary views – more likely to survive
genetic basis
breeding docile animals and vicious animals
physical aggression – more linked to genes
social aggression – more linked to environmental
neurobiological factors
limbic system - active
frontal lobes of brain – smaller / less functioning
low levels of serotonin
high levels of testosterone
results = less consistent with humans than animals
operational definitions of aggression  external validity criticism

27. Aggression psychological influences
aversive circumstances  triggers aggression
frustration – the blocking of an individual’s attempts to reach a goal  triggers aggression
frustration-aggression hypothesis – frustration always leads to aggression
weather, physical pain, crowding  triggers aggression
cognitive determinants
priming (seeing a weapon  prime hostile thoughts)
perception of unfairness  triggers aggression
observational learning
Bobo doll study, Bandura, Ch. 6
violence on TV
violence at home

28. Aggression sociocultural influences cultural variations
inequality (gap b/w the rich and poor)
U.S. higher homicide rate compared to other developed countries… greater inequality (YouTube clip)
culture of honor
honor killings
the South

29. Aggression media violence television violent pornography
increases aggression
changes attitudes towards violence
violence in home = more significant
violent pornography
small effect on male sexual aggression
increases acceptance of violence toward women
rape myth – the false belief that women desire coercive sex
violent video games
“rational though is suspended and highly arousing aggressive scripts are increasingly likely to be learned”
CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH:
more aggressive
less sensitive to real-life violence
more likely to engage in delinquent acts
lower grades

30. Critical Controversy: A SHORT Time to Ponder
Do you or people you know play violent video games? If so, what impact, if any, do you think this activity has on your or their thoughts and feelings?
Would you allow your child to play violent video games? Why or why not?
What do you think policymakers should do with regard to the controversy over the effects of playing video games?

31. Aggression reducing aggression decrease rewards lessen exposure
encourage empathy
monitor adolescents’ activity

32. Social Influence: Conformity
conformity – a change in a person’s behavior to coincide more closely with a group standard
can lead to enhanced cooperation among group members
Asch’s Experiment (1951)
factors that contribute to conformity
informational social influence – the influence other people have on us because we want to be right
normative social influence – the influence others have on us because we want them to like us
volunteer participant conformed to incorrect answers 35% of time
VIDEO Clip:
demonstrates power of conformity (breaking social norms)
cognitive neuroscience
fMRI images - when women found others disagreed, they responded as mistakes

33. Social Influence: Conformity
Which line is the same length?
CHALLENGE: As a group, try to convince someone of something obviously incorrect…

34. Social Influence: Obedience
obedience – behavior the complies with the explicit demands of the individual in authority
obedient: authority figure demands  we do
Stanley Milgram’s Experiments (1965, 1974)
factors that contribute to disobedience
disobedient models
authority figure not legitimate or not close by
victim made to seem more human
ethical concerns regarding Milgram – deception
VIDEO: TED Talks (may leave the room – very graphic)

35. Social Influence: Obedience
How far do you think you would go?

36. Group Influence Deindividuation Social Contagion Group Performance
erosion of personal identity and responsibility
anonymity
example: KKK
group, darkness, wearing white
Social Contagion
imitative behavior
spread of behavior, emotions, and ideas
examples: social fads, the popularity of dog breeds, the spread of unhealthy behaviors (smoking and drinking in adolescents), symptoms of eating disorders among young women
experiment: go someplace quiet and start coughing
observations: misbehaviors in school (talking, packing up early, etc.)
Group Performance
social facilitation: arousal with well-learned tasks
social loafing: reduced accountability

37. Group Decision Making Risky Shift Group Polarization
group decisions are riskier than average individual decisions
Group Polarization
discussion strengthens the individual’s position

38. Group Decision Making: Groupthink
group harmony valued over “right” or “correct”
impaired decision making and avoidance of realistic appraisal
symptoms of groupthink
overestimating the power and morality of one’s group
close-mindedness
lack of willingness to hear all sides of an argument
pressure for uniformity  “get with the program”
dissent meets with very strong disapproval
avoiding groupthink
avoid isolation
allow the airing of all sides of an argument
have an impartial leader
include outside experts in the debate
encourage group members who are strongly identified with the group to speak out in defense

39. Group Decision Making: Majority-Minority Influence
majority: normative and informational pressure
informational – greater opportunity to share
normative – set group norms  those who do not go along may be ignored or given the boot
minority: informational pressure
cannot win with normative pressure
must use informational pressure
consistency and confidence = key
must win over majority members

40. A SHORT Challenge
Can you think of a minority position that you support?
Create a cogent argument in support.
Then consistently and confidently defend it.

41. Intergroup Relations Group Identity Social Identity us versus them
define ourselves in terms of group membership
assumes commonalities

42. Intergroup Relations Henry Tajfel’s Social Identity Theory
our social identities are a crucial part of our self-image and a valuable source of positive feelings about ourselves
in-groups versus out-groups
in-group – a group that has special value in comparison with other groups
out-group
focus more on the differences between the groups than on their similarities
Tajfel’s Reseach (1978)
dot estimation (over or under) to create arbitrary groups
asked to award money to other participants
 awarded money to members of their “own group” more
conclusion: we favor the members of in-groups based on trivial differences...
Ethnocentrism
favoring one’s own group over other groups
out-groups not just different, but worse/inferior/less than

43. A SHORT Time to Ponder: Tajfel’s Reseach (1978)
How has this concept been used around the world and through history to oppress people?
Rwanda
Slavery in the United States

44. Social Identity

45. Prejudice
an unjustified negative attitude toward a group and its members
explicit versus implicit racism
explicit racism – a persons conscious and openly shared attitude, which might be measured using a questionaire
implicit racism – attitudes that exist on a deeper, hidden level… must be measure with a method that does not require awareness
Implicit Associations Test (IAT) – a computerized survey that assesses the ease with which a person can associate a Black or White person with good things
THE DOLL TEST: VIDEO!! If you find it—the original vide, I will drop the lowest grade from every person in your class period for the fourth quarter AND I will buy your class donuts and coffee from the place of your choice
explanations for prejudice
competition between groups
cultural learning
Dream Deferred, post cards, and kids learning racism… 
motivation to enhance self-esteem
limitations in cognitive processes

46. Prejudice “ethnic cleansing” U.S. racial prejudice Are you racist?
“black names” video
Freakonomics video clip
white names – 50% more likely to get an interview
Are you racist?
88% of Americans say no

47. Stereotyping and Prejudice
stereotype - a generalization about a group
discrimination - unjustified negative or harmful action
Civil Rights Act of 1964 (revised 1991)
unlawful to deny someone employment on the basis of gender or ethnicity
video: actresses / typecasting

48. Stereotyping and Prejudice
How can relationships between ethnic groups be improved?
contact does not lead to tolerance / warm relations
Gordon Allport (1954)
think that they are equal status
feel that an authority figure sanctions the positive relationships
believe that friendship might emerge from the interaction
engage in cooperative tasks in which everyone hast to contribute

49. Stereotyping and Prejudice
Improving Interethnic Relations
Contact Only is Not Effect
Works best if groups:
think they are of equal status
feel an authority figure approves positive relations
anticipate emergent friendship
engage in cooperative tasks
task-oriented cooperation:
Sherif’s robbers cave study
Aronson’s jigsaw classroom

50. Stereotyping and Prejudice
task-oriented cooperation:
Muzafer Sherif’s robbers cave study
organized groups of 11-year-old boys into “Rattlers” and the “Eagles” in a summer camp called Robbers Cave
competed in baseball, touch football, tug-of-war
relations became ugly
brought together to complete tasks – repairing camp’s only water supply system, pooling money to rent movie
shows how competitive and cooperative activities changes perceptions of the out-group
Eliot Aronson’s jigsaw classroom
real-world application: violence and ethnic tensions in desegregated schools between African Americans, Mexican Americans and Whites
jigsaw classroom – all students have to pull together to get the “big picture”
each group contains similar ethnic and ability level
associated with increased self-esteem, better academic performance, friendships among classmates, and improved interethnic perceptions

51. Sherif’s Robbers Cave Study

52. Close Relationships TED Talks: Reverse-Engineering on-line dating
Attraction
proximity (physical closeness) – strong predictor of attraction
mere exposure effect – the phenomenon that the more we encounter someone or something (a person, a word, and image), the more probable it is that we will start liking the person or thing even if we do not realize we have seen it before
promise of acquaintanceship
we like those who like us
similar attitudes, behavior patterns, taste in clothes, intelligence, personality other friends, values, lifestyle, physical attractiveness
similarity
consensual validation – our own attitudes and behavior are supported when someone else’s attitudes and behavior our similar to our s—their attitudes and behavior validate ours
tend to shy away from the unknown

53. Close Relationships: Love
Romantic Love
passionate love (romantic love) – love with strong components of sexuality and infatuation, often dominant in the early part of a love relationship
“in-love”
sexuality and infatuation
Affectionate Love
companionate love (affectionate love) – love that occurs when individuals desire to have another person near and have a deep, caring affection for the person
deep caring affection
passion gives way to affection

54. Close Relationships: Love
Social Exchange Theory
fair exchange of “goods”
minimize costs, maximize benefits
equity – a feeling on the part of the individuals in the relationship that each is doing his or her fair share
most important predictor of relationship success
fades over time in a relationship (becomes distasteful)
Investment Model
factors in stability of relationship – predicts satisfaction and stability
commitment to partner – predicts willingness to sacrifice
investment in relationship – brings out the best in eachother
lack of attractive alternatives

55. Social Psychology and Health and Wellness
Social Ties and Health
isolation and mortality
loneliness linked with impaired physical health
social support and coping
Fighting Loneliness
join activities with others
diverse social network  live longer
narrow social network  live shorter
act pleasant
get help

56. Chapter Summary
Describe the influences on people’s perceptions and attributions of others.
Identify how people are influenced in social settings.
Discuss inter-group relations.
Explain the nature of close relationships.
Describe social processes affecting health and wellness.

57. Chapter Summary Social Psychology Social Cognition
study of how we think about, influence, and relate to other people
Social Cognition
person perception
attribution and the fundamental attribution error
heuristics
self-esteem
attitudes – cognitive dissonance/self perception

58. Chapter Summary Persuasion Prosocial Behavior Aggression altruism
bystander effect
media influence
Aggression
biological influences
psychological influences
sociocultural influences

59. Chapter Summary Social Influence Intergroup Relations
conformity – Asch’s study
obedience – Milgram’s study
group influence
deindividuation, social contagion, group performance
group decision making
Intergroup Relations
social identity
prejudice and stereotyping

60. Chapter Summary Close Relationships
attraction – proximity and similarity
romantic (passionate) love
affectionate (companionate) love
social exchange theory and investment model
Social Psychology and Health and Wellness
social ties and health