1. Sensitometry Describing photographic performance

2. Objectives The student should be able to: Describe the importance of the study Define the relevant terms Describe the methods of producing a sensitometric strip Plot the characteristic curve Describe the Features of the characteristic curve Describe the importance & practical applications

3. Why is the study important? To produce images with optimum contrast that reveal high details of the object examined. Optimum contrast? Low contrast (long scale contrast) High contrast (Short scale contrast)

4. Photographic images Optimum contrast

5. High contrast

6. Low contrast

7. X-ray images

8. Introduction Photosensitive materials (x-ray films) are used to record the invisible x-ray image It is required to reproduce all the characteristics of the invisible image in visible form. The films ability to do so depends on its sensitometric properties. It is advantages to have a sound knowledge of sensitometric properties of x-ray films.

9. X-ray tube Object Plot of incident x-ray beam intensity Plot of transmitted x-ray beam intensity Invisible x-ray image Formation of Invisible x-ray image

10. Invisible x-ray image B2 T1 T2 T3 E E B1 E B2 E T1 EMEM E T2 E T3 EAEA kV mA Sec FFD B B1 Air Supporting tissue (m) EMEM Invisible X-ray image

11. What is Sensitometry? The scientific study of the response of photosensitive material to different levels of exposures. How is it done? Producing a sensitometric strip and plotting a characteristic curve. Producing a sensitometric strip and plotting a characteristic curve.

12. What is Response of exposure & How is it manifested?  The response is the change that takes place, after exposure to electromagnetic radiation (light or x-rays), in the photosensitive emulsion on the film  The response of the film to exposures is manifested as a degree of blackening produced after chemical processing

13. How is degree of blackening quantified/measured?  In Radiography the degree of film blackening is quantitatively indicated by the term ‘Optical Density’.  The optical density describes how much a certain area of the film is opaque to light incident upon it.

14. Optical Density The optical density is expressed quantitatively as, Optical Density = Log 10 Opacity It is measured by using the ‘Densitometer’ (The densitometer works on the following principle)

15. Consider the light transmitted through an area of a film Incident light intensity (I i ) Transmitted light intensity (I t ) Transmittance (Transmission ratio)= I t / I i Opacity = 1 / Transmittance = I i / I t Density = Log 10 Opacity = Log 10 I i / I t

16. Range of densities on a film IiIiIiIi ItItItIt Transmit tance OpacityDensity 1000.010.11.010.01000.00010.0010.010.1110000100010010143210 4 3 2 1 0

17. Sensitometric strip A film containing number of areas with different optical densities from white (fully transparent) to black (fully opaque)

18. How to produce a sensitometric strip and the characteristic curve? 1.Expose a film to different amounts of known exposures starting from a minimum and increasing at a known rate (ratio / wedge factor) up to a maximum. 2. Process the film 3. Measure the densities 4. Tabulate the result & Study the response by plotting a curve (density Vs Log relative exposure

19. Methods of exposing Time scale method (using x-ray exposure) Intensity scale method i. Using x-ray exposure ii. Using light exposure ii. Using light exposure

20. Time scale method The film is exposed to different quantities of exposures using constant intensity and variable duration. (Quantity = Intensity x Time) Equipment required X-ray machine Cassette with film inside Lead sheets ProcessorDensitometer Graph paper

21. Procedure (time scale method) Constants kV, mA, FFD Variable Time Lead sheetsLoaded cassette X-ray tube Loaded cassette Areas to be exposed

22. Exposure selection Minimum exposure Low enough not to produce a measurable density Maximum exposure High enough to produce a density around 3.0 Increment Wedge factor (Ratio between two exposures) of 2 is adequate. (2 ½ can be used to get more levels) Wedge factor (Ratio between two exposures) of 2 is adequate. (2 ½ can be used to get more levels) Alternatively the time steps available in the machine may be used to get more points on the graph Alternatively the time steps available in the machine may be used to get more points on the graph

23. Intensity scale method 1 Making a single exposure using a calibrated step wedge X-ray machine a loaded cassette (The intensity of x-rays passing through the steps are different & the duration of exposure is the same) X-ray exposure

24. Intensity scale method 2 The film is exposed to a series of different intensities of light for the same duration using an instrument called the “Sensitometer”. The wedge factor is usually 2 ½ The colour of light should match the spectral sensitivity of the film

25. Film obtained using time scale method

26. Plotting the curve AreaABCD Exposure (Time) 0.010.020.040.08 Relative exposure 1248 Log relative exposure 00.30.60.9 Density0.250.30.40.9

27. Plotting the curve AreaEFGHI Exposure (Time) 0.160.320.641.282.56 Relative exposure 163264128256 Log relative exposure 1.21.51.82.12.4 Density1.452.12.52.72.9

28. 1 2 3 4 1234 Density Shoulder Toe Characteristic curve GF GF = Gross Fog D Max Straight line portion

29. Shoulder Straight line portion Toe D-Max GF

30. (Features) Information obtainable Gross fog (Basic fog) ThresholdContrast Latitude (film latitude & exposure latitude) Speed & Sensitivity Maximum density Reversal

31. Gross fog (Basic fog) & net density This is the density of the horizontal part of the curve at the minimum exposure level This is the density of the horizontal part of the curve at the minimum exposure level Gross fog = Base Density + Fog Base Density :- Density produced by the base material Fog :- Density produced by the development of silver halide crystals which have not received an intentional exposure Net density = Gross density – Gross fog

32. 1 2 3 4 1234 Log relative exposure Net Density Shoulder Toe Characteristic curve (with net density) Net density = gross density – gross fog 0

33. Threshold The region where the film emulsion begins to respond to the exposure Contrast The rate of change of density for a given change of log relative exposure Contrast = ΔD / ΔE It is given by the slope (gradient) of the straight line portion of the curve. If it is a true straight line then the contrast is called Gamma. Since, in practice, the curve is not an exact straight line, the average gradient is taken as the contrast. Since, in practice, the curve is not an exact straight line, the average gradient is taken as the contrast.

34. ΔDΔD ΔEΔE Contrast = ΔD/ ΔE

35. 1 2 3 4 1234 Log relative exposure Density Average gradient DXDX DY Log E X Log E Y A B C Average gradient = BC/AC D Y - D X = ----------- log E Y – log E X How to select points A and B ?

36. Point A ? Point B ? A : D X = 0.25 above Basic fog B : D Y = 2.0 above Basic fog  The densities from 0.25 to 2.0 is called the Useful Density range.  Useful density range is the density range in which the differences can be identified by the human eye.  The densities which represents different structures on a radiograph should lie within this range of densities.

37. Average Gradient Useful density range Range of log relative exposures that produces the useful range of densities =  Useful density range is the range of densities within which the human eye can recognize the small differences  That is the range of net densities from 0.25 to 2.0

38. Latitude Latitude is an expression of the tolerance of a system to extreme conditions of exposure. It refers to the ability of a film or film-screen system to record successfully a wide range of exposure. (considered in two parts) Film latitude & Exposure latitude Film Latitude The difference between the upper and lower limits of log relative exposure which produce densities within the useful range

39. Significance of film latitude The range of x-ray intensities transmitted through the body part should lie within the film latitude, if they are to be viewed as useful densities on the radiograph. Any x-ray intensity that falls out side the film latitude will not reveal any information & a useful piece of information might be lost

40. Film latitude & Average gradient 1 2 3 4 1234 Log relative exposure Density DXDX DY Log E X Log E Y A B C When Dx = 0.25+BF & Dy = 2.0 +BF D Y - D X Average gradient = ----------- becomes log E Y – log E X 1.75 = ------------------ Film latitude

41. Exposure latitude This refers to the freedom of the radiographer to select slightly different exposures (to make room for errors) for a particular examination so that the resulted densities remains within the useful density range. Exposure latitude = film latitude – subject contrast (log relative exposure range transmitted from a particular body part)

42. Subject contrast E E1E1 E2E2 E3E3 E4E4 E5E5 E6E6 E7E7 kV mA Sec FFD B B Air

43. Transmitted intensities E1E1E1E1 E2E2E2E2 E3E3E3E3 E4E4E4E4 E5E5E5E5 E6E6E6E6 E7E7E7E7 Relative Intensity RE 1 RE 2 RE 3 RE 4 RE 5 RE 6 RE 7 Log relative intensity e1e1e1e1 e2e2e2e2 e3e3e3e3 e4e4e4e4 e5e5e5e5 e6e6e6e6 e7e7e7e7 Subject contrast e1e1e1e1 e7e7e7e7

44. Image contrast e1e1e1e1 e7e7e7e7 D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7

45. Film latitude Subject contrast Exposure latitude X Y e 1 ≥ X ; e 7 ≤ Y Exposure latitude = film latitude – Subject contrast

46.  Sensitivity refers to the exposure required by a film or film-screen system to produce a net density of 1.  Sensitivity is expressed in miliroentgens (mR)  A high sensitive (have low mR value for sensitivity) or high speed system requires less exposure than that of a low sensitive or low speed system. Speed & Sensitivity

47. Numerically the Speed is proportional to the reciprocal of the sensitivity (mR) and is expressed as 128 128 Speed = -------------- Sensitivity (mR) Sensitivity (mR)Speed Sensitivity (mR) 12000.1 8000.16 4000.32 2000.64 1001.28 502.56 255.0 1210.0

48. 1 2 3 4 1234 Log relative exposure Density 1+BF Log E SA Log E SB A B Comparison of Speeds of two films (film- screen systems) Speed A > Speed B Speed A α 1/ E SA Speed B α 1/ E SB Speed A E SB ------------- = ------ Speed B E SA BF

49. As Log (E SB / E SA ) = Log E SB - Log E SA Taking logarithms on both sides = Log(Speed A / Speed B) = Log E SB - Log E SA If Log E SA = a, and Log E SB = b = b – a Log(Speed A / Speed B) = b – aThen Speed A / Speed B = antilog (b-a)

50. Maximum Density (D Max ) The density produced when all the silver bromide crystals in the emulsion is exposed and developed Reversal This is the region where the density reduces with the increasing exposure greater than that produce D Max

51. 1 2 3 4 1234 Log relative exposure Density D Max & Reversal BF D Max Reversal

52. Spectral Sensitivity This is the term used to describe the response of the film to the range of wavelengths (spectrum of colours) of light 300400500600700 0.5 1 Relative response Wavelength (nm) Monochromatic film Orthochro matic film

53. Uses of the characteristic curve Information Gross fog (Basic fog) ThresholdContrast Latitude (film latitude & exposure latitude) Speed & Sensitivity Maximum density ReversalUses Selection of films Assessing processor performance (Quality control) Selection of exposure factors Comparison of film- screen systems Duplication of radiographs

54. Summary Definitions of terms Methods of producing a sensitometric strip Plotting the Characteristic curve Features of the characteristic curve The practical applications

55. Thank You V.G.Wimalasena, Principal, School of Radiography