1. Work in the 21st Century Chapter 8
The Motivation to Work

2. Module 8.1: An Introduction to Motivation
Central position of motivation in psychology
Motivation concerns conditions responsible for variations in intensity, quality, & direction of ongoing behavior

3. Brief History of Motivation Theory in I-O Psychology
First theories anchored motivation in notions of instincts (Freud)
“Instinct” gradually replaced by terms like need, motive, & drive (Maslow)
Behaviorist approach (Skinner)
Field theory (Lewin)  Group dynamics

4. Metaphors For Motivation
Person as machine
People’s behaviors & actions are reflexive & involuntary, performed without conscious awareness
Pushed by internal needs
Pulled by environmental stimuli

5. Metaphors For Motivation (cont’d)
Person as judge
Individual seeks information about extent person & others perceived as responsible for positive & negative events
Hypothesizes about foundation for events & actions of others
Person as intentional
Develops goals & plans
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6. Motivational Metaphors

7. Meaning & Importance of Motivation in the Workplace
Motivation & performance
Situational
Constraints
(Motivation x Ability) – =
PERFORMANCE

9. Motivation & Work-Life Balance
Investigates whether satisfaction one experiences at work is affected by satisfaction one experiences in non-work & vice versa

10. Motivation & Attitudes
Relatively stable feelings or beliefs directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas, or jobs
Attitudes include job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and job involvement, which are covered in more detail in Chapter 9

11. Motivation & Personality
Consistent relationships exist between personality characteristics & performance motivation
Neuroticism negatively related to performance motivation
Conscientiousness positively related to performance motivation

12. Module 8.2: Motivational Theories – Classic Approaches
Person-as-machine theories
Maslow’s need theory
Internal mechanical theory
All humans have basic set of needs that express themselves over life span of individual as internal “pushes” or drives

13. Maslow’s Need Theory (5 Levels)
Physiological needs
Basic needs like food & water
Security needs
Need to produce a secure environment
Love or social needs
Desire to be accepted by others
Esteem needs
Being respected for accomplishments or capabilities
Self-actualization
Desire to develop capabilities to fullest

14. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

15. Dilbert’s View on Need Hierarchy Theory

16. Maslow’s Need Theory
Employer needs to know at what need level individual worker is operating
Group of workers may all be functioning at different need levels
Fits person-as-machine metaphor

17. Variations on Maslow’s Theory
Two-factor theory (Herzberg, 1966)
2 basic needs, not 5
Needs are independent (not hierarchical)
1) Hygiene needs
Maslow’s physical & security needs
2) Motivator needs
Maslow’s social, esteem, & self-actualization needs

18. Variations on Maslow’s Theory (cont'd)
ERG theory (Alderfer, 1972)
3 basic needs, not 2 or 5
Levels:
Existence (E)
Relatedness (R)
Growth (G)
Has not garnered much support

19. Reinforcement Theory: An External Mechanical theory
Behavior depends on 3 elements:
stimulus, response, & reward
Contingent reward
Reward depends on response
Intermittent & continuous rewards
Intermittent rewards produce higher performance levels
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20. Person-as-Scientist Models
Vroom’s VIE theory
Valence: Strength of person’s preference for particular outcome.
Instrumentality: Perceived relationship between performance & attainment of a certain outcome.
Expectancy: Perceived relationship between effort and performance.

21. Scientist Models (cont'd)
Dissonance theory
Suggests that tension exists when individuals hold incompatible thoughts
Assumes that individuals always seek some sense of “balance” & will direct their behavior toward seeking & maintaining that balance

22. Scientist Models: Equity Theory
Equity Theory: Individuals look at world in terms of comparative inputs & outcomes
Compare their inputs & outcomes to those of “comparison others”
Figure 8.1
Mathematical
Description of
Equity Theory

23. Equity Theory of Employee Reactions to Inequitable Payment

24. Module 8.3: Modern Approaches to Work Motivation
Person-as-Intentional Approach
Goal-setting theory
Notion of goal as a motivational force
Distinction between goal acceptance & goal commitment
Lawrence M. Sawyer/Getty Images

25. Figure 8.2: Diagram of Goal Theory

26. Goal-Setting Theory (cont'd)
Feedback loop important between knowledge of results & intermediate stages
Control theory
Based on principle of feedback loop
Assumes individuals compare a standard to an actual outcome & adjust their behavior to bring outcome into agreement with a standard

27. Relationships Among Needs, Motives, Goals, & Performance
Figure 8.3
The Relationships among Needs,
Motives, Goals, and Performance
Source: Locke & Latham (1996).

28. Control Theories & the Concept of Self-Regulation
Self-regulation is compatible with control theory
Figure 8.4
Simple Control
Systems Model
Source: Taylor,
Fisher, & Ilgen (1984)

29. Self-Efficacy in Modern Motivation Theory
Self-Efficacy is a belief in one’s capacity to perform a specific task or reach a specific goal
Developed & increased by:
Mastery experiences
Modeling
Social persuasion
Physiological states

30. Action Theory (Rubicon theory)
Broad consideration of role of intention in motivated behavior & connection between intention & action
Action phases in active goal pursuit
Predecisional
Postdecisional
Actional
Evaluative

31. Action Theory (cont'd) Action has 2 elements Action process
Action structure
Figure 8.5
The Action Process
Source: Frese & Zapf (1994)

32. Common Themes in Modern Approaches to Motivation
Intention plays key role in motivated behavior
Concept of feedback critical in considering anything but the simplest act at one point in time
Theory should include element of person-as-scientist
Theory should include concept of self-assessment
Some non-cognitive element in the “ultimate” motivation theory

33. Module 8.4: Practical Issues in Motivation
Motivation can be measured
Motivational trait questionnaire (MTQ)
Measures 6 aspects of “general” motivation
Desire to learn
Mastery
Other referenced goals
Competitiveness
Worry
Emotionality

34. Table 8.3: Sample Items from the Motivational Trait Questionnaire

35. Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation
Hofstede’s cultural theory
Cultures differ on 5 dimensions
Collectivism/individualism
Uncertainty avoidance
Masculinity/femininity
Power dimensions
Long-term vs. short-term orientation
Application to MTQ
D. Normark/PhotoLink/Getty Images

36. Cross-Cultural Issues in Motivation (cont'd)
Types of motivational practices employed by managers across all cultures
Differential distribution of rewards
Participation in goal setting & decision making
Design & redesign of jobs & organizations
Quality improvement

37. Generational Differences & Work Motivation
Defined by group members who share birth years & significant life events
e.g., Baby Boomers, Generation Xers, Generation Yers
D. Berry/PhotoLink/Getty Images

38. Generational Differences (cont'd)
Generation Xers vs. Baby Boomers -- Initial Research indicates that:
Younger employees appear to be more “me” oriented
Today’s workers value “pride in work” less than workers of 1974
Work is less important now than 25 years ago
Work becomes less idealized as workers age

39. Motivational Interventions
Contingent rewards
Job Enrichment (Tied to 5 job characteristics)
Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Task feedback

40. Motivational Interventions (cont'd)
Productivity Measurement & Enhancement System (ProMES)
Utilizes goal setting, rewards, & feedback to increase motivation & performance
Evidence shows significant gains in productivity following use of ProMES

41. ProMES Steps for Implementation
Forming a design team
Identifying objectives
Identifying indicators
4) Defining contingencies
5) Designing the feedback system
6) Giving & responding to feedback
7) Monitoring the system