1. Chapter One: The Science of Psychology

2. Ways to Acquire Knowledge

3. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Tenacity

4. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Tenacity
Refers to the continued presentation of a particular bit of information. When we hear a statement repeated a sufficient number of times, we have a tendency to accept it as being true.

5. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Authority

6. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Authority
Acceptance of knowledge from an authority; taking someone’s word for it; also depends on the credibility of the person presenting the information.

7. Psychological Detective
What problems can you identify with acquiring knowledge through tenacity and authority?

8. Psychological Detective
What problems can you identify with acquiring knowledge through tenacity and authority?
You have no way of knowing if the knowledge you have gained is true.

9. Psychological Detective
What problems can you identify with acquiring knowledge through tenacity and authority?
You have no way of knowing if the knowledge you have gained is true.
The inability or unwillingness of tenacity and authority to change in the face of contradictory evidence.

10. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Experience

11. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Experience
Experiencing something firsthand or directly.

12. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Experience
Experiencing something firsthand or directly.
Is all experience perfectly accurate?

13. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Reason and Logic

14. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Reason and Logic
Based on the premise that we can apply reason and logic to a situation in order to gain knowledge and understanding. This process is frequently called a logical syllogism.

15. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Reason and Logic
Based on the premise that we can apply reason and logic to a situation in order to gain knowledge and understanding. This process is frequently called a logical syllogism.
An example of a logical syllogism is the assumption that “beautiful people are good.”

16. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Science

17. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Science
The key elements of the scientific approach are:

18. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Science
The key elements of the scientific approach are:
Objective measurements of the phenomenon under consideration

19. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Science
The key elements of the scientific approach are:
Objective measurements of the phenomenon under consideration
The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by other individuals

20. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Science
The key elements of the scientific approach are:
Objective measurements of the phenomenon under consideration
The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by other individuals
Self-correction of errors and faulty reasoning

21. Ways to Acquire Knowledge
Science
The key elements of the scientific approach are:
Objective measurements of the phenomenon under consideration
The ability to verify or confirm the measurements made by other individuals
Self-correction of errors and faulty reasoning
Exercising control to rule out the influence of unwanted factors

22. Ways to Acquire Knowledge (recap)
Tenacity
Authority
Experience
Reason and Logic
Science

23. Psychological Detective

24. Psychological Detective
Review the methods for acquiring knowledge that we presented. How does the scientific method avoid the problems associated with tenacity, authority, experience, and reason & logic?

25. Components of the Scientific Method

26. Components of the Scientific Method
Objectivity

27. Components of the Scientific Method
Objectivity
A good researcher strives to be as objective as possible.

28. Components of the Scientific Method
Objectivity
A good researcher strives to be as objective as possible.
Psychologists select research participants in such a manner as to avoid biasing factors (such as age or sex).

29. Components of the Scientific Method
Objectivity
A good researcher strives to be as objective as possible.
Psychologists select research participants in such a manner as to avoid biasing factors (such as age or sex).
Researchers frequently make their measurements with instruments in order to be as objective as possible. We describe such measurements as being empirical because they are based on objectively quantifiable observations.

30. Components of the Scientific Method

31. Components of the Scientific Method
Confirmation of Findings

32. Components of the Scientific Method
Confirmation of Findings
Because the procedures and measurements are objective, we should be able to repeat them and confirm the original results. Confirmation of findings is important for establishing the validity of research.

33. Components of the Scientific Method
Confirmation of Findings
Because the procedures and measurements are objective, we should be able to repeat them and confirm the original results. Confirmation of findings is important for establishing the validity of research.
Psychologists use the term replication to refer to a research study that is conducted in exactly the same manner as a previous study. A replication with extension generates new information at the same time it confirms previous findings.

34. Components of the Scientific Method

35. Components of the Scientific Method
Self-correction

36. Components of the Scientific Method
Self-correction
Errors and faulty reasoning that become apparent should lead to a change in the conclusions we reach.

37. Components of the Scientific Method
Self-correction
Errors and faulty reasoning that become apparent should lead to a change in the conclusions we reach.
If experimental evidence fails to support the predicted relations between our independent and dependent variables, we change our view about how nature operates.

38. Components of the Scientific Method

39. Components of the Scientific Method
Control

40. Components of the Scientific Method
Control
Direct manipulation of factors of major interest.

41. Components of the Scientific Method
Control
Direct manipulation of factors of major interest.
An experiment is an implementation of control by manipulating the factor(s) that is the central focus of research.

42. Components of the Scientific Method
Control
Direct manipulation of factors of major interest.
An experiment is an implementation of control by manipulating the factor(s) that is the central focus of research.
Control of unwanted factors

43. Components of the Scientific Method
Control
Direct manipulation of factors of major interest.
An experiment is an implementation of control by manipulating the factor(s) that is the central focus of research.
Control of unwanted factors
Potentially influential and undesirable factors (other than the factor of major interest) are not allowed to change.

44. Components of the Scientific Method (recap)
Objectivity
Confirmation of findings
Self-correction
Control

45. The Psychological Experiment

46. The Psychological Experiment
An attempt to determine the cause-and-effect relations that exist in nature.

47. The Psychological Experiment
An attempt to determine the cause-and-effect relations that exist in nature.
Researchers are interested in determining those factors that result in or cause predictable events.

48. The Psychological Experiment
In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of three related factors:

49. The Psychological Experiment
In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of three related factors:
The independent variable

50. The Psychological Experiment
In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of three related factors:
The independent variable
The dependent variable

51. The Psychological Experiment
In its most basic form the psychological experiment consists of three related factors:
The independent variable
The dependent variable
Extraneous variables

52. The Psychological Experiment
Independent Variable

53. The Psychological Experiment
Independent Variable (IV)
The factor that is the major focus of the research and that the researcher directly manipulates.

54. The Psychological Experiment
Independent Variable (IV)
The factor that is the major focus of the research and that the researcher directly manipulates.
Manipulation of the IV corresponds to one use of the term control.

55. The Psychological Experiment
The IV is:

56. The Psychological Experiment
The IV is:
Independent

57. The Psychological Experiment
The IV is:
Independent
Can be directly manipulated by the investigator.

58. The Psychological Experiment
The IV is:
Independent
Can be directly manipulated by the investigator.
Variable
Is able to assume two or more values (levels).

59. The Psychological Experiment
The IV is:
Independent
Can be directly manipulated by the investigator.
Variable
Is able to assume two or more values (levels).
The causal part of the relation we seek to establish.

60. The Psychological Experiment

61. The Psychological Experiment
Dependent Variable

62. The Psychological Experiment
Dependent Variable (DV)
Consists of the the recorded information or results of the experiment.

63. The Psychological Experiment
Dependent Variable (DV)
Consists of the the recorded information or results of the experiment.
Is the effect half of the cause-and-effect relation we are examining.

64. The Psychological Experiment
Dependent Variable (DV)
Consists of the the recorded information or results of the experiment.
Is the effect half of the cause-and-effect relation we are examining.
Changes in DV scores will depend on the manipulation of the IV.

65. The Psychological Experiment
Extraneous Variables

66. The Psychological Experiment
Extraneous Variables
Are those factors, other than the independent variable, that can influence the dependent variable and change the results of your experiment.

67. The Psychological Experiment
Extraneous Variables
Are those factors, other than the independent variable, that can influence the dependent variable and change the results of your experiment.
When an extraneous variable is present we have no way of knowing whether the extraneous variable or the IV caused the effect we observe.

68. The Psychological Experiment
Extraneous Variables
Are those factors, other than the independent variable, that can influence the dependent variable and change the results of your experiment.
When an extraneous variable is present we have no way of knowing whether the extraneous variable or the IV caused the effect we observe.
Attention to extraneous variables represents another use of the term control.

69. The Psychological Experiment
Establishing cause-and-effect relations

70. The Psychological Experiment
Establishing cause-and-effect relations
Only when we manipulate an independent variable and control potential extraneous variables are we able to infer a cause-and-effect relation.

71. The Psychological Experiment (recap)
Independent variable
Dependent variable
Extraneous variables
Establishing cause-and-effect relations

72. The Research Process

73. The Research Process
Finding a Problem

74. The Research Process Finding a Problem
Each research project begins as a problem or a question for which we are seeking an answer.

75. The Research Process
Reviewing the Literature

76. The Research Process Reviewing the Literature
Finding out what research studies already exist in an area

77. The Research Process
Theoretical Considerations

78. The Research Process Theoretical Considerations
A theory is a formal statement of the relation among the relevant variables in a particular research area.

79. The Research Process Theoretical Considerations
A theory is a formal statement of the relation among the relevant variables in a particular research area. All good theories:
Attempt to organize a given body of scientific data.

80. The Research Process Theoretical Considerations
A theory is a formal statement of the relation among the relevant variables in a particular research area. All good theories:
Attempt to organize a given body of scientific data.
Points the way to new research.

81. The Research Process
Hypothesis

82. The Research Process Hypothesis
Attempts to state specific IV-DV relations within a selected portion of a larger, more comprehensive research area or theory.

83. The Research Process Hypothesis
Attempts to state specific IV-DV relations within a selected portion of a larger, more comprehensive research area or theory.
The research or experimental hypothesis is the predicted outcome of a research project.

84. The Research Process Hypothesis
Attempts to state specific IV-DV relations within a selected portion of a larger, more comprehensive research area or theory.
The research or experimental hypothesis is the predicted outcome of a research project.
The research hypothesis states a testable prediction about the relations between the independent and dependent variables in your experiment.

85. The Research Process

86. The Research Process
Research Design

87. The Research Process Research Design
A general plan for conducting your research.

88. The Research Process Research Design
A general plan for conducting your research.
Your research design specifies:

89. The Research Process Research Design
A general plan for conducting your research.
Your research design specifies:
How you will select your participants and assign them to groups.

90. The Research Process Research Design
A general plan for conducting your research.
Your research design specifies:
How you will select your participants and assign them to groups.
The types of extraneous variable control(s) you will use.

91. The Research Process Research Design
A general plan for conducting your research.
Your research design specifies:
How you will select your participants and assign them to groups.
The types of extraneous variable control(s) you will use.
How you will gather your data.

92. The Research Process

93. The Research Process
Conducting the Experiment

94. The Research Process Conducting the Experiment
The next step is to actually conduct the experiment (gather the data).

95. The Research Process
Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions

96. The Research Process Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions
Once the data has been gathered, it has to be analyzed.

97. The Research Process Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions
Once the data has been gathered, it has to be analyzed.
Based on the results of the data analysis, we will decide whether manipulating the IV had a significant effect on the DV.

98. The Research Process Data Analysis and Statistical Decisions
Once the data has been gathered, it has to be analyzed.
Based on the results of the data analysis, we will decide whether manipulating the IV had a significant effect on the DV.
If manipulation of the IV had a statistically significant effect on the DV, and if the experiment was well-designed, we can infer that the IV manipulation was the cause of the DV effect we recorded.

99. The Research Process
Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory

100. The Research Process Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory
Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and theory.

101. The Research Process Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory
Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and theory.
Was our experimental hypothesis supported?

102. The Research Process Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory
Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and theory.
Was our experimental hypothesis supported?
Do our results agree with past research?

103. The Research Process Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory
Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and theory.
Was our experimental hypothesis supported?
Do our results agree with past research?
How do our results fit into the current theoretical structure in this research area?

104. The Research Process Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory
Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and theory.
Was our experimental hypothesis supported?
Do our results agree with past research?
How do our results fit into the current theoretical structure in this research area?
If our results do not fit perfectly, what changes need to be made in our interpretation or existing theory to accommodate them?

105. The Research Process Decisions in Terms of Past Research and Theory
Statistical results must be interpreted in light of past research and theory.
Was our experimental hypothesis supported?
Do our results agree with past research?
How do our results fit into the current theoretical structure in this research area?
If our results do not fit perfectly, what changes need to be made in our interpretation or existing theory to accommodate them?
Does lack of support for our hypothesis disconfirm the theory?

106. The Research Process

107. The Research Process
Preparing the Research Report

108. The Research Process Preparing the Research Report
A research report is the way we share our results with the scientific community.

109. The Research Process Preparing the Research Report
A research report is the way we share our results with the scientific community.
A research report is prepared according to the format prescribed by the American Psychological Association (APA).

110. The Research Process Preparing the Research Report
A research report is the way we share our results with the scientific community.
A research report is prepared according to the format prescribed by the American Psychological Association (APA).
APA format allows researchers to know exactly what to include in their papers and readers to know exactly where to look for specific experimental details, procedures, and results.

111. The Research Process
Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication

112. The Research Process
Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication
The two most popular ways to share results are:

113. The Research Process
Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication
The two most popular ways to share results are:
Present an oral paper or a poster at a psychological convention, and/or

114. The Research Process
Sharing Your Results: Presentation and Publication
The two most popular ways to share results are:
Present an oral paper or a poster at a psychological convention, and/or
Publish an article in a professional journal

115. The Research Process
Finding a New Problem

116. The Research Process Finding a New Problem
The more deeply you immerse yourself in a research area, the more questions and problems you will find to research.

117. Why is the Research Methods Course Important?

118. Why is the Research Methods Course Important?
It assists you in other classes

119. Why is the Research Methods Course Important?
It assists you in other classes
The more completely you understand research methodology, the better you will be able to master the material in your other classes.

120. Why is the Research Methods Course Important?
Conducting a research project after graduation

121. Why is the Research Methods Course Important?
Conducting a research project after graduation
You might have to conduct research as a condition of future employment (even if you’re not particularly interested in research at this point in time).

122. Why is the Research Methods Course Important?
Getting into Graduate School

123. Why is the Research Methods Course Important?
Getting into Graduate School
Psychology graduate admissions committees view a course in research methods or experimental psychology very positively.

124. Why is the Research Methods Course Important?
Getting into Graduate School
Psychology graduate admissions committees view a course in research methods or experimental psychology very positively.
Having presented or published a report is also rated very highly by graduate school admissions committees.

125. Why is the Research Methods Course Important?
Becoming a Knowledgeable Consumer of Research.

126. Why is the Research Methods Course Important?
Becoming a Knowledgeable Consumer of Research.
If you understand the research on which a variety of claims are based, then you are in a position to make a more educated decision concerning such knowledge claims.