1. ARCHITETCTURES of COMPUTERS SYSTEMS

2. Centralized systems Characteristics Proprietary systems
Limited knowledge of the computer thecnologies
Backlog
Some general elements about computer architecture.
The first type of architecture was “centralized architecture”, The central computer has been named “mainframe”
Proprietary systems means that both hardware and software belong to the same company. IBM, Univac, Honeywell are the most famous computer companies. The systems belonging to different companies were completly different in the sense that a program running on a particular computer was unable to run on a different computer. That is the reason why IBM,in particular, became very popular. It was not convenient for an organization (bank) to change the brand of the computer. In fact it should be necessary to change all applications because the O.S. was different, the Hardware was different and the same for the I/O devices.
As a consequence the diffusion of the knoledge of the computer technology was veri limited. The mainframe was located in a EDP center and used only by specialized people
The term backlog is related to the use modality of the computer. The users submit to EDP center their programs and wait until these programs has been executed. There is not direct interaction between user and computer. Backlog means the block of programs waiting for execution in the EDP center. (one at a time)

3. TERMINAL TERMINAL centralized computer TERMINAL TERMINAL
Centralized solution
TERMINAL
TERMINAL
centralized computer
Note that the terminals are not intelligent terminal, that is, personal computers. They are only constituted by a video and a keyboard.
The user inserts its program in the central computer by terminal and waits for the response.
TERMINAL
TERMINAL

4. Distributed Systems
Set of independent computers connected by a communication network in order to execute different functions (administration, management, thecnical problems, logistic, production..) that are present in a complex organization.
Note that we are speaking about a specific organization (a bank, an industry,..). That is , the distributed system is working for that organization.

5. computer Data Local terminals base
Note that to each computer are assigned particular functions. If a node of the distributed system crashes, the others nodes can continue th execution of the specific functions.

6. Advances in thechnology personal computer local network (LAN)
High speed networks (LAN, MAN, WAN)
The diffusion of distributed systems has been favoured by some advances in…

7. Advantages of Distributed systems over Centralized ones
servers offer a better price/performance than mainframes
A large number of applications are distributed ( they run on different machines)
Reliability
Incremental growth (computing power can be added in small increments)
Data sharing (allow many users access to a common data base)
Device sharing (allow many users to share expensive peripherals)
Flexibility (spread the workload over the available machines in the most cost effective way)

8. Some definitions
Reliability: the ability of a system to perform and maintain its functions in routine circumstances, as well as hostile or unexpected circumstances.
availability: The ratio of (a) the total time a funcional unit is capable of being used during a given interval to (b) the length of the interval
security: protection against non authorized access
fault tolerance: the ability of a system to respond gracefully to an unexpected hardware or software failure

9. Open Systems
Distributed systems consisting of eterogenous hardware and software components from different system vendors.
Unlike a propritary solution a open distributed system can be realized by using components from the different vendors.
Utilization of standards (hardware, software)
Computer firms are specialized in different kind of computer, PC, servers, workstations. The OsS or data base systems are generally different from firm to firm.This is a very big problem because the communication among computers of a distributed system must be very simple and that it is possible only if standard are used.

10. Open systems are computer systems that provide some combination of interoperability, portability, and open standard software.
The term was popularized in the early 1980s, mainly to describe systems based on UNIX, especially in contrast to the more complex mainframes and minicomputers in use at that time.
Unlike older legacy system, the newer generation of Unix systems featured standardized programming interfaces and peripheral interconnects; third party development of hardware and software was encouraged.
A significant departure from the norm of the time, which saw companies such as Amdhal and Hitachi going to court for the right to sell systems and peripherals that were compatible with IBM's mainframes.

11. Standard
A technical standard is an established norm or requirement. It is usually a formal document that establishes uniform engineering or technical criteria, methods, processes and practices.
Standard de jure: Hardware or software that is endorsed by a standards organization.
Standard de facto: Hardware or software that is widely used, but not endorsed by a standards organization
The standard concept is relative to the functional aspects of a component; the component may be realized in different ways.

12. CLIENT-SERVER MODEL Coordination model in a distributed system.
It defines:
Which process may begin the interaction
Which process may answer
How error conditions may be managed.
Now, we introduce the client-server model. The problem in a distributed system is the coordination model. That is, it must be specified

13. Although an Internet system provides a basic communication service, the protocol software cannot initiate control with, or accept contact from, a remote computer.
Of course, two application involved in a communication cannot both wait for a message to arrive. One application must actively initiate interaction while the other application passively waits.
Most network applications use a form of communication known as the client –server paradigm. A server application waits passively for contact, while a client application initiates communication actively.
TCP/IP is only a tool used to transmit bytes from a node to an other node, to establish a connection between two nodes

14. Process classification
Client process, the process that requires a service
Server process, the process that provides the required service
The client requires a service, the server provides the service and makes available the results to the client

15. In generally, client software:
Client functions
In generally, client software:
is an arbitrary application program that becames a client temporarily when remote access is needed, but also performs other computation locally.
is invoked locally by a user, and executes only for one session
runs locally on a user personal computer
actively initiates contact with a server
can access multiple services as needed, but actively contacts one remote server at a time.
does not require special hardware or a sophisticated operating system
The same for a bancomat. The user inserts the card, chooses the particular function required and activates a particular program

16. Server functions
Is a special purpose, privileged program dedicated to providing one service, but can handle multiple remote clients at the same time.
Run on a shared computer(i.e. not a user’s personal computer).
Wait passively for contact from arbitrary remote clients
Accepts contact from arbitrary clients, but offers a single service
Requires powerfull hardware and a sophisticated operating system

17. Application server
Kinds of client services:
mail server
file server
terminal server
name server
authentication server
gateway server
administration server
………….

18. A server must guarantee:
authentication: client identity verification
authorization: verification of the possibility for a client to access to a particular service
data security: garantee that specific data cannot be read and/or modified

19. SERVER E SERVER CLASS COMPUTERS
Formally the term server refers to a program that waits passively for communication and not to the computer on wich it executes.
However,when a computer is dedicated to running one or more server programs, the computer itself is sometimes called a server.
Server class computer refers to a powerfull computer used to run server software.
It may offer simultaneosly more services, each of them corresponding to a specific program application
The term server is used both to indicate a program that offers a specific service or the computer in which the program is running.

20. Information can flow in either or both directions between a client and a server.
Typically, a client sends a request to a server, and the server returns a response to the client.
In some cases, a client sends a series of requests and the server issues a series of responses (e.g., a data base server can allow to a user to look up more than one item at a time)
In other cases, the server provides continous output without any request . As soon as the client contacts the server, the server begins sending data (e.g. local weather server might send continous weather reports with updated temparature and barometric pressure.)

21. Characteristics of a client-server architecture
Client and server machines need different amount of hardware and software resources.
Client and server machines may belong to different vendors.
orizzontal scalability (increase of the client machines) and vertical scalability (migration to a more powerful server or to a multiserver solution)
A client or server application interacts directly with a transport layer protocol to establish communication and to send or receive information.
The transport protocol then uses lower layer protocols to send or receive individual messages. Thua, a computer needs a complete stack of protocols to run either a client or a server.
1. In the case of the client the hardware is represented by a PC and the OS is normally very simple. In the case of the server the computer is a server, that is a medium computer characterized by I/O devices, mass storage (disks).
3.A client server architecture is characterized by two properties:

22. A single server-class computer can offer multiple services at the same time; a separate server program is needed for each service.
Identifyng a particular service
TCP uses 16-bit integer values (protocol port numbers) to identify services, and assign a unique port number to each service.
A client specifies the protocol port number of the desired service when sending a request.

23. Classification of client server structures
In a client/server application three functions are present:
user interface
application programs
data management
Following the assignment of functions among client and server we have three possible types of structures:
- host-based processing
- server based processing
- cooperative processing
- client based processing

24. Host-based processing
client
server
Presentation logic
Application logic
Database logic
DBMS
Host-based processing
Presentation logic
Application logic
Database logic
DBMS
Server-based processing

25. Host- based processing is not true client server computing
Host- based processing is not true client server computing. It refers to the traditional mainframe environment in which all or virtually all of the processing is done on a central host.
The user’s station is generally limited to the role of a terminal emulator.
Server-based processing. The client is principally responsible for providing a graphical user interface, while virtually all the processing is done on the server.

26. Cooperative processing
client
server
Presentation logic
Application logic
Application logic
Database logic
DBMS
Cooperative processing
Presentation logic
Application logic
Database logic
Database Logic
DBMS
Client-based processing

27. Client-based processing
Client-based processing. Virtually all application processing may be done at the client, with the exception of database logic functions that are best performed at the server.
This configuration is perahps the most common client server approach in current use.
Cooperative processing. That application processing is performed in an optimized fashion, taking advantage of the strenghts of both client and server machines and of distribution of data.

28. Three-level Client/Server Architecture
The traditional client/server architecture involves two levels, a client level and a server level.
A three level architecture is constituted by three types of machines: a user machine, a middle-level server and a back end server.
The user machine (client) is typically a thin client.
The middle-level server is the application server.
The back-end server is the data server.

29. Legacy system
A “hold” system (mainframe) which has not been removed after the installation of a new system.

30. Dynamic server creation
Concurrency is fundamental to the client server model of interaction because a concurrent server offers service to multiple clients at the same time, without requiring each client to wait for previous clients to finish.
The server creates a new thread for each request that arrives.
The main server thread waits for a request to arrive, then it creates a new service thread to handle each client

31. Complex Client-Server Interactions
A client application is not restricted to accessing a single service. The client may contact a different server (perhaps on a different computer) for each service.
. A server for a service can became a client of another server.
In the following we will explain some complex client- server interactions. In the simple interaction a client sends a request for a particular service and the waits for the response

32. STATELESS Vs STATEFULL SERVERS
State information: information that a server maintains about the interaction state with the clients.
The information state provides an incremental answer to a new request.
The information state can increase the system efficiency, but problem may arise in the case of duplicated messages , delays and messages arrived out of order.

33. File server - remote access by clients
File server - remote access by clients . Two kinds of requests : Reading data from the file and writing data on the file.
Stateless server – It does not mantain informations about the transactions. Each request must specify the name of the file, the position in the file from which to extract or to insert information, the number of bytes to insert or extract.
Statefull server – The server mantains the state information about the files that accessed the server

34. Statefull server
The server sends to the client the identifier of the previously open file. The client utilizes this identifier for the following requests.
identifier file name current position
1 test.program.c 0
2 tcp.book.doc
3 dept.budget.txt 38
4 tetris.exe

35. Statefull server
Advantages: higher efficiency, incremental operations, lower dimension messages.
Problems: comand duplication, delays, messages out of order, server crash (open files are not correctly closed).

36. COOKIES
Information records that the server sends to the client together with the service answer.
A cookie contains
user informations
informations on tha visited pages
The following requests of the client to the server require the transmission of the relative cookies.

37. Cookies
The server answer to a request of a client contains:
Set-cookie: user identification number created by the server web
Set-cookie:
The client inserts this information in a cookie file . The information includes the host name and the identification number of the client.
In the following requests the client inserts the previous information .
The server does not know the user name, but it is able to identify the client.

38. The web servers use cookies for the following objectives:
To eliminate the need to require user name and password in order to authenticate the client.
To store the user preferences
To keep track of the objects that a client is buying on the web site.