1. Chapter 7: Analyzing Behavior Change: Basic Assumptions and Strategies
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

2. Concepts & Assumptions Underlying the Analysis of Behavior
Determinism
Empiricism
Experimentation
Parsimony
Philosophic doubt
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

3. Concepts & Assumptions Underlying the Analysis of Behavior
“The overall goal of science is to achieve an understanding of the phenomena under study”
In applied behavior analysis – the phenomena of interest is socially significant behavior
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

4. Concepts & Assumptions Underlying the Analysis of Behavior
Science enables various degrees of understanding at three levels
Description
Prediction
Control
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

5. Experimental Control: The Path to and Goal of Behavior Analysis
Experimental control (defined)
A predictable change in behavior (dependent variable) can be reliably produced by the systematic manipulation of some aspect of the person’s environment (independent variable)
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

6. Experimental Control: The Path to and Goal of Behavior Analysis
Experimental analysis (defined)
Experimentally determining the effects of environmental manipulation on behavior and demonstrating that those effects can be reliably produced
Can be achieved when
A reliable functional relation between behavior and some specified aspect of the environment has been demonstrated convincingly
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

7. Experimental Control: The Path to and Goal of Behavior Analysis
Internal validity
The extent to which an experiment shows convincingly that changes in behavior are a function of the independent variable and not the result of uncontrolled or unknown variables
Studies without high a high degree of internal validity
Yield no meaningful statements about functional relations
Lack generality
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

8. Experimental Control: The Path to and Goal of Behavior Analysis
Confounding variables are those variables known or suspected to exert an uncontrolled influence on the dependent variable
The effects of confounding variables must be evaluated and eliminated to demonstrate experimental control
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

9. Experimental Control: The Path to and Goal of Behavior Analysis
“ the goal of experimental design is to eliminate as many uncontrolled variables as possible and to hold constant the influence of all other variables except the independent variable, which is purposefully manipulated to determine its effects”
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

10. Behavior Defining Features and Assumptions that Guide Its Analysis
Behavior is an individual phenomenon
Behavior is a continuous phenomenon
Assumptions
Behavior is determined
Behavioral variability is extrinsic to the organism
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

11. Behavior Defining Features and Assumptions that Guide Its Analysis
Behavior is an individual phenomenon
Behavior
a person’s interaction with the environment
Groups of people do not behave
Experimental strategy of ABA is based on within-subject (single-subject) methods of analysis
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

12. Behavior Defining Features and Assumptions that Guide Its Analysis
Behavior is a dynamic, continuous phenomenon
Changes over time
Requires continuous measurement over time
Complete record of behavior as it occurs in context
Systematic repeated measurement is the “hallmark” of ABA
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

13. Behavior Defining Features and Assumptions that Guide Its Analysis
Behavior is determined
The occurrence of any event is determined by the functional relations it holds to other events
Behavior is a natural phenomenon
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

14. Behavior Defining Features and Assumptions that Guide Its Analysis
Behavioral variability is extrinsic to the organism
Variability is the result of environmental influence such as,
The independent variable under investigation
Some uncontrolled aspect of the experiment
Uncontrolled or unknown factor outside of the experiment
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

15. Behavioral Variability Most commonly held assumptions in psychology and other social/behavioral sciences
The assumption of intrinsic variability
An intrinsic characteristic of the organism
Distributed randomly among individuals in any given population
Methodological implications
Attempting to experimentally control or investigate variability is a waste of time
By averaging the performance of individual subjects within large groups – the random nature of variability can be statistically controlled or cancelled out
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

16. Behavioral Variability Assumptions of Behavior Analysts
Behavioral variability is the result of an environmental influence
Methodological implications
Experimental manipulations of the factors suspected of causing variability
Search for causal factors
In practice
Applied behavior analysts seek treatment variables robust enough to overcome variability
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

17. Components of Experiments in ABA
At least one
Subject or participant
Behavior (dependent variable)
Setting
Treatment or intervention condition (independent variable)
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

18. Components of Experiments in ABA (continued)
A system for measuring the behavior and ongoing analysis of the data
Manipulations of the independent variable so that its effects on the dependent variable, if any, can be detected
Experimental design
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

19. Components of Experiments in ABA (continued)
Research question
“a brief but specific statement of what the researcher wants to learn from conducting the experiment”
(Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993b, p.366)
What are the effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable
for what population & in what setting?
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

20. Components of Experiments in ABA (continued)
Subject (s)
In single-subject research the subject is employed as his or her own control
Measures of the subject’s behavior during each phase of the study provide the basis for comparing experimental variables as they are presented or withdrawn in subsequent conditions
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

21. Components of Experiments in ABA (continued)
Behavior (s)
Dependent variable (s)
Reasons for multiple dependent measures
Provide data patterns that can serve as controls for evaluating & replicating the effects of an independent variable
Assess the presence and the extent of the independent variable’s effects on behaviors other than the response class to which it was directly applied
Determine whether changes in the behavior of a person other than the subject occur during the course of an experiment & if such changes can explain changes in the subject’s behavior
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

22. Components of Experiments in ABA (continued)
Setting
“Control the environment and you will see order in behavior.”
(Skinner, 1967, p. 399)
Control two sets of environmental variables to demonstrate experimental control
Independent variable
Presenting, withdrawing, or varying its value
Extraneous variables
Prevent unplanned environmental variation
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

23. Measurement System and Ongoing Visual Analysis
Observation & recording procedures must be conducted in a standardized manner
Standardization involves every aspect of the measurement system
Definition of the target behavior to scheduling of observations
Behavior analysts must develop skills in the detection of changes in the level, trend, and degree of variability in behavioral data
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

24. Intervention or Treatment: Independent Variable
Independent variable (defined)
The particular aspect of the environment that the experimenter manipulates to find out whether the it affects the subject’s behavior
The researcher controls or manipulates this variable independent of the subject’s behavior or any other event
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

25. Experimental design Defined
The particular arrangement of conditions in a study so that meaningful comparisons of the effects of the presence and absence of the independent variable can be made
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

26. Experimental design Nonparametric study Parametric study
Independent variable is either presented or absent during a time period or phase of the study
Parametric study
The value of the independent variable is manipulated
Seeks to discover the differential effects of a range of values
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

27. Fundamental Rule Change only one variable at a time
Experimenter can attribute any measured changes to a specific independent variable
If investigating the effects of a “treatment package”
Ensure that the entire package is presented or withdrawn each time a manipulation occurs
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

28. Some Additional Rules Do not get locked into textbook “designs”
Often require a priori assumptions about the nature of the functional relations one seeks to investigate
May be insensitive to unanticipated changes in behavior
Select & combine experimental tactics that best fit the research questions
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

29. Steady State Strategy & Baseline Logic
“A pattern of responding that exhibits relatively little variation in its measured dimensional quantities over a period of time”
(Johnston & Pennypacker, 1993a, p. 199)
Provides the basis for baseline logic
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

30. Steady State Strategy & Baseline Logic
Repeated exposure of a given subject to a given condition while trying to eliminate or control extraneous influences on behavior & obtaining a stable pattern of responding before introducing the next condition
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

31. Steady State Strategy & Baseline Logic
Prediction
Verification
Replication
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

32. Nature & Function of Baseline Data
Serves as a control condition
Does not imply the absence of intervention
Absence of a specific independent variable
Why?
To establish a baseline level of responding to use the subject’s performance in the absence of the independent variable as an objective basis for detecting change
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

33. Nature & Function of Baseline Data
Applied Benefits of establishing a baseline level of responding
To obtain descriptions of antecedent-behavior-consequent correlations for the planning of an effective treatment
Valuable guidance in setting initial criteria for reinforcement
Baseline data may reveal the behavior targeted for change does not warrant intervention
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

34. Types of Baseline Data Patterns
Stable baseline (A)
Ascending baseline (B and C)
Variable baseline (D)
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

35. Types of Baseline Data Patterns
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

36. (Johnston & Pennypacker, 1980)
Prediction
“the anticipated outcome of a presently known or future measurement. It is the most elegant use of quantification upon which validation of all scientific and technological activity rests.”
(Johnston & Pennypacker, 1980)
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

37. Prediction Prediction Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

38. Affirmation of the consequent
Inductive logic
“if the independent variable were not applied, the behavior, as indicated by the baseline data path, would not change
If-A-then-B statement
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

39. Affirmation of the consequent
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

40. Verification
Verification of a previously predicted level of baseline responding by termination or withdrawal of the treatment variable
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

41. Verification Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

42. Replication “Replication is the essence of believability”
(Baer, Wolf, & Risley, 1968, p. 95)
Replication of the experimental effect accomplished by reintroducing the treatment variable
Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition

43. Replication Cooper, Heron, and Heward
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition