1. Physiology Crops, Yield

2. What is your main goal as a farmer?

3. Where it starts Photosynthesis is the fundamental plant process that is responsible for plant growth and the production of yield. All of our food supply depends upon photosynthesis. Source: Dennis Egli

4. sugars proteins fats minerals CO 2 O2O2

5. Goal The business of agriculture is to manage photosynthesis to get maximum food production as efficiently as possible.

6. TIME DRY WEIGHT g/m 2 (lbs/acre) Vegetative Biomass Total Biomass Seed Biomass Vegetative Stage Seed Fill Flowering and Seed Set Physiological Maturity Harvest Maturity Growth and Development of a Crop Commodity Source: Dennis Egli

7. Solar Energy Water (H 2 O) Mineral nutrients; N, P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Mo, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, B, Cl CO 2 Temperature Source: Dennis Egli O 2

8. “ Practically everything we see about us has involved photosynthesis at some stage or another. The gardener often talks about ‘feeding’ plants when he applies fertilizers and the notion that plants derive their nourishment from the soil is one that is commonly held. They do not. Plants take up minerals from the soil and they derive their nourishment from the air”. “ Practically everything we see about us has involved photosynthesis at some stage or another. The gardener often talks about ‘feeding’ plants when he applies fertilizers and the notion that plants derive their nourishment from the soil is one that is commonly held. They do not. Plants take up minerals from the soil and they derive their nourishment from the air”. Edwards and Walker (1983) C3, C4: Mechanisms and Cellular Regulation of Photosynthesis. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Edwards and Walker (1983) C3, C4: Mechanisms and Cellular Regulation of Photosynthesis. Blackwell Scientific Publications. Source: Dennis Egli

9. Photosynthesis Chlorophyll – green pigments Absorbs light. Light powers the process Capture C from CO 2 and O 2 from H 2 O to form sugars

12. Chlorophyll – green pigments Key elements – N, Mg, C, O, H

13. Photosynthesis Chlorophyll – green pigments Absorbs light. Light powers the process Capture C from CO 2 and O 2 from H 2 O to form sugars

14. Respiration Uses some of the C fixed in photosynthesis to carry on maintenance and development of the plant. Photosynthesis makes the sugar, respiration does something with it.

15. Photosynthesis: carbon dioxide + water sugar + oxygen 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 Respiration: C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 + 6 H 2 O 6 CO 2 + 12 H 2 O Solar energy Energy Source: Dennis Egli

17. Photosynthesis Capture C from CO 2 and O 2 from H 2 O to form sugars –C 3 plants – 3-carbon sugar –C 4 plants – 4-carbon sugar

18. SpeciesTotal Production (2005/2006) RankPhotosynthesis Millions of tonnes 1 Maize704 1 C 4 Rice634 2 C 3 Wheat 618 3 C 3 Soybean218 4 C 3 Barley140 5 C 3 Sorghum58 6 C 4 Peanut50 7 C 3 Rapeseed49 8 C 3 Millet32 9 C 3 Sunflower30 10 C 4 Top 10 world grain crops based on total world production (2005-2006). 1 1 tonne = 1000 kg = 2205 pounds. Source: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (www.FAO.org). Source: Dennis Egli

19. (Corn) (Soybean)

20. Source: Dennis Egli

21. Your Main Goal Maximize photosynthesis in order to maximize yield.

22. Yield = LI × RUE × HI

23. TIME DRY WEIGHT g/m 2 Vegetative Biomass Total Biomass Seed Biomass Vegetative Stage Seed Fill Flowering and Seed Set Physiological Maturity Harvest Maturity Growth and Development of a Crop Commodity Source: Dennis Egli

24. Three Stages of Yield Production ( Murata,1969) Vegetative Growth: Formation of organs for nutrient absorption and photosynthesis Flowering and Pod Set: Formation of flower organs and the yield container. Seed Filling: Production, accumulation and translocation of yield components Source: Dennis Egli Reproductive Growth

25. Questions?

26. Corn Yield Improvement Hybrids N fertilizer Herbicides Higher plant populations Narrow rows (from 40 down to 30 inches) Earlier planting

27. Corn Yield Increases 60% to genetics 40% to agronomics Lee and Tollenaar, 2007

28. Corn Harvest Index Ear: 50% of dry matter Stalk and leaves: 50% of dry matter Harvest Index: –Ear Weight : Total Above Ground Biomass HI has not changed in the hybrid era

29. Seed Yield Components Kernel number Kernel size Kernel weight Lee and Tollenaar, 2007

30. Corn Grain Yield Pre-Silking Leaf area/angle Flowering Date Photosynthesis Post-Silking Leaf area/angle Number of Days Functional Stay Green Visual Stay Green Dry Matter Accumulation Silk Establishment Potential Kernel Number Threshold plant growth rate at silking (PGRs) Kernel set efficiency (# of kernels/unit PGRs) Lee and Tollenaar, 2007

31. Yield = LI × RUE × HI

32. Soybean Yield Trends, etc.

33. 57.0 40.0 Recent Droughts Jim Specht, Nebraska

34. 2980 44.3 By 2010 Conversion Factors: 67.25 kg/ha = 1 bu /ac; 1000 kg/ha = 14.7 bu/ac USA Soy Yield trend line at 29.9 kg/ha yr (0.44 bu/ac yr) rate goes to 4000 kg/ha (ca. 60 bu/ac) by the year 2044. See next slide for what I predicted back in 1999. 0.44 bu/ac year Jim Specht, Nebraska

35. Annual Improvement in Yield Technological Innovation –Genetic Technology – continual release & rapid adoption of the newest, ever-higher-yielding hybrids (corn) or varieties (soybeans). –Agronomic Technology – periodic development and adoption of more effective crop management practices (with skill & timing!) and equipment. –Genetic x Agronomic Tech Synergism – yield advantage of modern hybrids & varieties is larger in more productive, highly managed environments. Jim Specht, Nebraska

36. Annual Improvement in Yield Other Considerations –Atmospheric CO 2 (316 ppm in 1959 to 376 ppm in 2003) – i.e., a rise in “carbon fertilization” of 1.5 ppm yr -1 = ~5 kg ha -1 yr -1 (about 1/12 bu ac -1 yr -1 ). Jim Specht, Nebraska

37. Genetic Improvement - Goals Productivity – increase yield potential per se by optimizing yield response to abiotic factors (i.e., water) in the targeted production environments. Protection – minimize the impact of biotic factors via rapid deployment of disease/pest resistance genes to existing and newly developed varieties. Quality – enhance the constituent or intrinsic marketplace value of the harvested raw product. Other – Transgenics may be used solve the insoluble, or to unlock (un)foreseen opportunities. Jim Specht, Nebraska

38. Soybean - Agronomic Improvements Earlier planting Narrower rows Better weed control Lower harvest losses Specht et al., 1999

40. 50% - genetic improvement 50% - improved management

41.  Incorporation of semi- dwarfing genes  Day-length insensitivity  Green Revolution and Int'l. Nurseries (CIMMYT)  Adult Plant Resistance (rusts, mildew)  Incorporation of 1B/1R or 1A/1R (pest resistance, adaptation, drought tolerance).  Rapid response to new pests: Russian wheat aphid, Hessian fly, eyespot, FHB  Increased grain yield and quality D. Van Sanford, Kentucky

42. Improved technology - increased program size Rapid information turnaround - more precision choosing parents, testing lines Enhanced cooperation - excellent access to germplasm D. Van Sanford, Kentucky

43.  Number of entries in USDA Uniform nurseries has increased greatly  Number of entries in KY variety trial -  1982: 32  2004: 72 D. Van Sanford, Kentucky

44.  G=Sh 2  More varieties, bigger populations - increased selection intensity  Yet the rate of yield increase has actually dropped off in the last 20 years D. Van Sanford, Kentucky

45.  Markers are being used  Short to mid term infrastructure being developed  What about the long term? D. Van Sanford, Kentucky

46.  Have likely accumulated most or all of the major favorable alleles  Need to be able to identify minor alleles  Need to work on the difficult traits D. Van Sanford, Kentucky