1. Introduction Linguistics 200 Spring 2002

2. How are languages structured?  List-type information  e.g. cat  Linguists make explicit in dictionaries (lexicons, vocabularies)  Rule-type information  e.g. cat (sg.) : cats (pl.)  Linguists make explicit in grammars

3. Some questions about grammar  What is the rule system in language X?  How are sounds/signs produced and perceived? What sounds or signs are possible/impossible in a language?  What is are possible words/sentences? How are words/sentences related to each other?  How does language convey information?

4. Some questions about grammar  How do rules change over time?  What social influences on rules can be identified?  How are rules learned: * as a first language? * as a second language?

5. Various senses of ‘grammar’  Grammatical competence  Descriptive vs. prescriptive grammar  Universal Grammar

6. Competence vs. performance Grammatical competence  what native speakers/signers know (list-and rule-type information)  typically unconscious knowledge  creative: produce/perceive novel utterances  what linguists are interested in

7. Competence vs. performance Performance : what speakers/signers actually do, in addition to producing well- formed words and sentences. Native speaker errors are performance errors, not competence errors.

8. Some performance errors  False starts: Where did you st- get that coat?  Wrong sound  Spoonerisms intended produced split pea soup plit spea soup  Tongue twisters: Lemon liniment

9. Descriptive vs. prescriptive grammar Descriptive linguistics:  linguists describe competence of speakers/signers of language X  grammatical competence = grammar  lexical competence = dictionary

10. Prescriptive linguistics  Rules and lists handed down by a supposed authority on the right way to speak.  consciously known rules (unlike grammatical competence)

11. Some prescriptive rules speakers say prescriptive rule violated “should” say I tried to quickly get out of there. don’t split infinitives I quickly tried to get out of there Somebody left their coat. their requires plural antecedent Somebody left his or her coat.

12. Prescriptive rules in other languages: Korean modernmodernhistoric [nun]‘eye’[nun]‘snow’[nu:n] [mal]‘horse’[mal]‘word’[ma:l] [pal]‘foot’[pal]‘blind’[pa:l]

13. Linguists’ view of differences between native speakers Variation exists: there are different varieties of the same language, not "right" vs. "wrong" varieties All native speakers are equally right about their language. All native speakers are equally right about their language.

14. Where do prescriptive rules come from? Source of English “can’t split infinitive” rule: Latin (in which infinitives are one word) Source of prescriptively maintained vowel length contrast in Korean: awareness of earlier stage of language

15. Universal grammar Language universals (or universal grammar (UG)): Universal properties of language, rules or phenomena found in all languages

16. Some examples of lg universals  All (spoken) languages have consonants and vowels.  All (spoken) languages have more consonants than vowels.

17. Some examples of lg universals  All languages have “parts of speech” (lexical or grammatical categories) which include nouns and verbs.  In all languages, the structure of sentences is hierarchical. Sentences are potentially infinite in length.

18. Why are there language universals?  Universal Grammar as a blueprint for language  Human beings are genetically predestined to learn a language

19. Cross-linguistic variation Sounds:  “Guttural” sounds or not  Witsuwit'en [qis] ‘king salmon’  Consonant sequences allowed or not  Sahaptin [tk w áta]- ‘eat’

20. Cross-linguistic variation Word structure:  # meaningful elements per word possible  Sekani [usà / mànis / o  ] ‘I gave him a bucket’  m- ‘him’, à- (  à)- ‘give’, ni- conjugation, s- ‘I’, - / o  ‘handle compact object’ (perfective)

21. Language modality Modality: medium through which language is transmitted.  Spoken languages use the vocal- auditory modality  Signed languages use the visual- gestural modality

22. Language modality American Sign Language (U.S. and Canada)  native vs. non-native signers  variation among native signers of ASL  grammar and lexicon

23. Languages and language families Language vs. dialect What is a language? mutual intelligibility: if 2 speakers can understand each other, they speak the same language.

24. Languages and language families English (language) qp American English (dialect) Brit. English (dialect) ei ei S. California (dialect) New York City (dialect) S. California (dialect) New York City (dialect) g S. Hargus (idiolect) S. Hargus (idiolect)

25. Languages and language families  Linguistic change over time is normal.  Dialects may become mutually unintelligible.  Languages that descend from the same ancestor belong to the same family.  Most languages are genetically related to at least one other language.

26. Language families E.g., Germanic Proto-Germanic Proto-Germanic q g p q g p West North East West North East qgi egi g qgi egi g High Low Angl.-Fris. Faroese Icelandic Norw., Gothic g gi gi Swed., Dan. g gi gi Swed., Dan. German Afr. Dutch English Frisian

27. Estimating linguistic diversity How many languages are there? Ethnologue: ‘more than 6700’ http://www.sil.org/ethnologue/

28. Distribution of world's languages area apx. # lgs % of world’s lgs Europe2253% N., S. America 100015% Africa201130% Pacific (incl. Australia) 130219% Asia216532%

29. Estimating linguistic diversity Number of language families: 188-217 Number of language families: 188-217 # lgs# families Americas1000122-141 Austr, Pacific130247 Europe, Asia239014-15 Africa20115-14

30. Linguistic extinction Some extinct languages of Europe Some extinct languages of Europe Gaulish, Cornish, ‘Pictish’ Gaulish, Cornish, ‘Pictish’ Etruscan Etruscan Estimated historical rate of linguistic survival: 75% Estimated historical rate of linguistic survival: 75% I.e., over 5000-6000 years, language families average 1.6 survivors of first split I.e., over 5000-6000 years, language families average 1.6 survivors of first split

31. Projections of linguistic diversity 50-90% loss in coming century 50-90% loss in coming century Moribund languages Moribund languages Endangered languages Endangered languages

32. Worst case scenario area% moribund lgs Alaska and Siberia90% US and Canada80% C. America, Mexico17% S. America27% N. and S. America33% Australia90%

33. North America At contact, 400 languages At contact, 400 languages Currently, 209 languages Currently, 209 languages 62 families and isolates 62 families and isolates 71% spoken by middle-aged and older 71% spoken by middle-aged and older 14% spoken by parents of young children 14% spoken by parents of young children 15% being learned by children as L1 15% being learned by children as L1

34. Navajo 1970: 90% of children in boarding schools lacked preschool experience with English 1970: 90% of children in boarding schools lacked preschool experience with English 1990s: 1990s: 50%+ Head Start children monolingual English speakers (Platero 1992) 50%+ Head Start children monolingual English speakers (Platero 1992) 50% of 5-year-olds have no knowledge of Navajo; about 16% are competent speakers (Holm 1996) 50% of 5-year-olds have no knowledge of Navajo; about 16% are competent speakers (Holm 1996)

35. Why are languages being lost?  Genocide of speakers  Destruction or displacement of speech community  Bombardment of dominant language  Economic incentives to learn dominant language; no economic incentives to learn/use native language  Language suppression in education

36. Positive(?) consequences of lg. loss Promotes political unity Promotes political unity Hebrew Hebrew Promotes workplace unity Promotes workplace unity “Let’s work together in a language we can all understand” “Let’s work together in a language we can all understand” Official languages cost taxpayers money Official languages cost taxpayers money

37. Negative consequences of lg. loss Scientific Scientific Development of linguistic theories Development of linguistic theories 6700 languages, 200 families (vs. 200 languages, 20 families; or 12 languages, 5 families) 6700 languages, 200 families (vs. 200 languages, 20 families; or 12 languages, 5 families)

38. Negative consequences of lg. loss Language and cultural identity Language and cultural identity Pascua Yaqui Tribal Council lg policy: "Our ancient language is the foundation of our cultural and spiritual heritage..." Pascua Yaqui Tribal Council lg policy: "Our ancient language is the foundation of our cultural and spiritual heritage..." Damon Clarke (Hualapai): "For many of us, our language is the key...in thinking, our educational system, and our ways." Damon Clarke (Hualapai): "For many of us, our language is the key...in thinking, our educational system, and our ways." Rosa Gonzalez: "This is what I am." Rosa Gonzalez: "This is what I am."

39. Maintaining linguistic diversity Political sanctioning of minority languages Political sanctioning of minority languages United Nations Draft Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 1993 United Nations Draft Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 1993 1990 U.S. Native American Languages Act 1990 U.S. Native American Languages Act Creating L1 situations Creating L1 situations

40. Summary 25% language extinction in 5000-6000 years is normal 25% language extinction in 5000-6000 years is normal Extinction of 90% languages in 100 years is unprecedented Extinction of 90% languages in 100 years is unprecedented Negative consequences are both scientific and cultural Negative consequences are both scientific and cultural