1. Adolescence: Social and Emotional Development
CHAPTER 12
Adolescence: Social and Emotional Development

2. Development of Identity: “Who Am I?”2

3. Erikson and Identity Development
Ego identity versus role diffusion
Erikson’s fifth stage of psychosocial development
Primary task of adolescence is to develop ego identity
Sense of who they are and what they stand for
Psychological moratorium
Adolescents experiment with different roles, values, beliefs, and relationships.
Undergo identity crisis in which they examine their values and make decisions about their life roles 3

4. Erikson and Identity Development (cont’d)
Many adolescents join “IN” groups and fit in by imitating peers’ dress, speech, hairstyles
Most resolve identity crisis and know what they stand for
Those who don’t are intolerant of people who are different and follow people who adhere to convention

5. Identity Statuses
Marcia (1991) theorized four identity statuses that represent four possible combinations of the dimensions of exploration and commitment that Erikson believed were important to identity.
1) Identity diffusion
Have no commitments and don’t try to form them
2) Foreclosure
Commitments based on identification with parents, teachers, or religious leaders
3) Moratorium
Actively exploring alternatives in attempt to make a choice
4) Identity achievement
Develop firm commitment
In the Foreclosure status: Individuals make commitments without considering alternatives.

6. Table 12-1, p. 249

7. Development of Identity Statuses
Before high school
Identity diffusion or foreclosure
During high school
The movement is from diffusion and foreclosure to moratorium and achievement statuses
During college
Greatest gains in identity formation
Moratorium identity status is common during college
Most college seniors have a stronger sense of identity than first-year students as a result of resolving identity crisis

8. Ethnicity and Development of Identity
If cultural values conflict between values of dominant culture and those of particular ethnic group, then the adolescent needs to sort out the values that are most meaningful to him or her and incorporate them into his/her identity
Cultural heroes of adolescents from ethnic minority groups may be ignored.
Scarcity of successful role models may be a problem, particularly for youth living in poverty
Too much identification with dominant culture may lead to rejection from the minority group
However, rejecting the dominant culture’s values for that of the minority group may limit opportunities for advancement in the larger society.

9. Ethnicity and Development of Identity (cont’d)
Three stages in the development of ethnic identity are hypothesized
1) Unexamined ethnic identity
Similar to diffusion or foreclosure
2) Ethnic identity search
Some incident makes teen aware of ethnic identity and causes exploration
3) Achieved ethnic identity
Involves a clear self-acceptance as a member of one’s ethnic group

10. Gender and Development of Identity
Erikson
Believed males and females begin identity formation in adolescence
Females
Relationships considered more important to identity formation
Remain more likely to integrate occupational and family plans
Males
Occupational and ideological matters more important to identity formation
Recent studies show
Males and females are both concerned about occupational choices.
Women who have uninterrupted careers, like men, tend to complete the task of identity achievement in late adolescence
Women who are full-time homemakers or who defer employment until their children are in school more likely to develop a strong sense of personal identity after their children reach school age

11. Development of the Self-Concept
Adolescents incorporate psychological characteristics and social relationships into self-descriptions.
Adolescents’ self-perceptions become more complex than those of younger children.
Adolescents add more categories to their self-description.
Contradictions in self-description peak at about age 14 and then decline in later adolescence

12. Table 12-2, p. 251

13. Self-Esteem Self-esteem
Declines as child progresses from middle childhood to about the age of 12 or 13
Boys fantasize about having physiques of warriors in video games
Girls want to be thin
Notion of ideal self may move to better reflect reality
As adolescents develop better skills, they may grow less self-critical.
Low self-esteem can have serious consequences.
Depressed and suicidal teens
Emotional support from parents and peers important
The more highly regarded the teen feels, the more likely to regard him-/herself higher

14. Relationships with Parents and Peers

15. Relationships with Parents
Mothers
Teens spend more time with mothers, have more conflicts with them, and report them as being more supportive and knowing them better.
Fathers
Adverse relationships with fathers are often associated with depression in adolescents.
Good relations with fathers contribute to adolescents’ psychological well-being.
Even though teens spend less time with parents, they continue to maintain love, loyalty, and respect for them.
Conflict greatest during puberty and declines in later adolescence

16. Relationships with Parents (cont’d)
Conflict occurs between what parent thinks they should control such as curfews and chores versus what teenager thinks they should control.
Mothers encourage teen to do homework and clean room
Less conflict as teens get older; more compromise
Little evidence to support generation gap between parents and teens; most teens are similar to parents with their value system
Teens are not in constant state of rebellion against their parents

17. Parenting Styles
Adolescents from authoritative homes (parents are willing to exert control and explain reasons for doing so)
show more competent behavior than other groups of teenagers.
More self-reliant
Do better in school
Have better mental health
Show the lowest incidence of psychological problems and misconduct, including drug use

18. Friendships in Adolescence
Teens have more friends than younger children.
Tend to have one or two “best friends” and several good friends
Spend many hours a day with them
Texting, conversing, and IM-ing
Teens more likely to
stress acceptance, intimate self-disclosure, and mutual understanding
stress loyalty and trustworthiness
share with friends and less likely to compete with them

19. Friendships in Adolescence (cont’d)
Teens and their friends typically similar in age and race
Almost always same sex
Romantic attachments increase but most still choose members of same sex as best friend
Friends are alike in
attitudes, educational aspirations, and grades
drinking, drug use, and sexual activity
Friendship contributes to positive self-concept and psychological adjustment.
Teens with best friend has higher self-esteem than teens without

20. Friendships in Adolescence (cont’d)
Females
More likely to share secrets, personal problems, thoughts, and feelings to their friends
Friendship networks are smaller and more exclusive
More likely to engage in unstructured activities with friends such as listening to music
Males
More likely to disclose information about their sex lives
Congregate in larger, less intimate groups
Engage in more organized activities, games, and sports

21. Peer Groups Cliques Crowds
Consist of 5 to 10 individuals who hang out together and share activities and confidences
Crowds
Larger groups who may or may not spend much time together and are identified by the activity or attitude of the group
Common labels are jocks, brains, druggies, nerds
Negatively labeled groups show higher levels of drug use, delinquency, and depression
Adolescent peer group includes members of opposite sex.

22. Dating and Romantic Relationships
Adolescents start dating or going out by the time they graduate high school.
Heterosexual sequence for dating
Putting oneself in situations where peers of opposite sex will be
Group activities including opposite sex peers
Group dating
Traditional two-person dating
Functions of dating
Have fun, enhance prestige with one’s peers, relate positively to different people; preparation for adult courtship activities

23. Dating and Romantic Relationships (cont’d)
Dating relationships short-lived in early adolescence
Relationships more stable and committed in late adolescence
18-year-olds more likely than 15-year-olds to mention love, trust, and commitment when describing romantic relationships

24. Peer Influence
Peer pressure fairly weak in early adolescence; peaks during mid adolescence; declines in late adolescence, after age 17
Parents and peers are usually complementary rather than competing influences.
Teens more likely to conform to peer standards in matters of taste and style; more likely to agree with parents on moral principles and future educational and career goals
Peer pressure tends to be positive and negative; may influence friend to not do “too well” in school

25. Peer Influence (cont’d)
Adolescents who smoke, drink, use drugs, and engage in sexual activity often have friends who engage in those behaviors.
Teens tend to have friends who are similar to themselves

26. Sexuality 26

27. Sexual Orientation Most teens have heterosexual orientation.
Homosexuality or bisexuality
Males with a homosexual orientation are referred to as gay
Females with a homosexual orientation are referred to as lesbians
Bisexual people are attracted to both males and females
Savin-Williams and Diamond (2000, 2004; Savin-Williams, 2007)
Found the development of sexual orientation in gay males and lesbians involves the following steps
attraction to members of the same sex, self-labeling
sexual contact with members of same sex
eventual disclosure of sexual orientation

28. Sexual Orientation (cont’d)
Disclosure usually occurs around age 18.
But some people such as parents are never told
“Coming out” refers to accepting one’s homosexual orientation and declaring it to others.
Usually disclosed to intimate group first
Gay adolescents oftentimes ostracized and rejected by family and friends
Eventually most families accept adolescent is gay
Suicide and depression rates are higher among gay youth than heterosexual youth.

29. Masturbation Masturbation
Self-stimulation
Most common sexual outlet during adolescence
More common in males than females (Kinsey, 1948)
May be due to stronger sex drive in boys, greater social constraints on girls, or both
Inaccurate beliefs that masturbation is harmful and guilt about masturbation lessen the incidence of masturbation.

30. Male-Female Sexual Behavior
Teens who date earlier are more likely to engage in sexual activity during high school.
The younger the teen when sexual activity occurs, the less likely they are to use contraceptives, more likely to become pregnant
Petting
Used to express affection, satisfy curiosity, heighten sexual arousal, and reach orgasm while avoiding pregnancy and maintaining virginity
Many adolescents don’t see petting as sex
Girls more likely to be coerced into petting

31. Male-Female Sexual Behavior (cont’d)
Incidence of oral sex increases with age
42% of girls ages 15 to 17 reported engaging in oral sex compared to 72% or girls aged 18 to 19
Used as a means of preventing pregnancy
Between 40% and 50% of high school students have had sexual intercourse.
Sexual involvement increases with age.

32. Effects of Puberty
Hormonal changes of puberty partly responsible for onset of sexual activity
In boys
Testosterone linked to sexual behavior
In girls
Testosterone linked to sexual interest
But social factors play a greater role sexual behavior in girls
Development of secondary sex characteristics may make teen more sexually attractive.
Early-maturing girls are more likely to have older friends, which may draw them into sexual relationships.

33. Parental Influences
Teens with close relationships to their parents are less likely to initiate activity at an early age.
Teens who communicate well with parents delay onset of sexual activity; if these youngsters do have intercourse, they are more likely to use birth control and have fewer sex partners

34. Peer Influences
Good predictor of sexual activity is the sexual activity of a teen’s best friends.
Main reason for sexual activity is peer pressure.
Peers and media sources (TV shows, films, magazines, and the Internet) — not parents — serve as source of sex education

35. Teenage Pregnancy
9 in 10 adolescents who become pregnant do so accidentally and without committed partners.
Most young women in developed nations defer pregnancy until after they have completed most or all of their education.
Girls get pregnant because
they have little information about how to address boys’ sexual advances
they fail to use contraceptives, and younger teens have less access to contraceptive devices
fewer than half use them reliably

36. Teen Pregnancy (cont’d)
Causes for teen pregnancy
Some girls get pregnant to force partner to make a commitment
Some get pregnant to rebel
Most get pregnant due to lack of knowledge of reproduction and contraception
750,000 teen girls get pregnant a year
Results in 400,000 births a year
10 to 20 years ago, 1 million girls were getting pregnant each year
CDCP attribute drop-off in careless sex to educational efforts by schools, the media, religious institutions, and communities
Half of pregnant teens get abortions.

37. Consequences of Teenage Pregnancy
Outcomes for teen mothers who have resources to nurture their babies are generally good.
Pregnant teens more likely to have medical complications during the months of pregnancy, and their labor is likely to be prolonged
Babies at a greater risk of being premature and LBW; most likely due to SES of the teen mother
Teen mother less likely to graduate high school or move on to postsecondary education, more likely to need public assistance, and less likely to have assistance from the baby’s father

38. Preventing Teenage Pregnancy
Some sexual education programs help to delay the onset of sexual activity.
Among teenagers already sexually active, sex education is associated with the increased use of effective contraceptives.

39. Juvenile Delinquency 39

40. Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile delinquency
Children or adolescents who engage in illegal activities and come into contact with the criminal justice system
Can include serious behaviors as homicide, rape, and robbery
Truancy, underage drinking, running away from home, and sexual promiscuity are considered illegal only when performed by a minor
These are termed status offenses
4 in 10 crimes in the U.S. committed by individuals under the age of 21; 3 in 10 by adolescents under 18
Many delinquent acts are referred to mental health agency

41. Ethnicity, Gender, and Juvenile Delinquency
African-American adolescents more likely to be arrested than European-American adolescents
African-American youths are 13% of the adolescent population in the U.S.
One-fourth of the juvenile arrests
One-half of those arrested for violent crimes
African-American children less likely than European-American children to be living with both parents

42. Ethnicity, Gender, and Juvenile Delinquency (cont’d)
Bishop (2005) notes two explanations for the European American-African American difference
1) Differential offending hypothesis
Actual racial differences contribute to the seriousness of delinquent behavior
2) Differential treatment hypothesis
No behavioral differences between the two, yet groups are treated differently by the juvenile justice system

43. Ethnicity, Gender, and Juvenile Delinquency (cont’d)
Risk factors
Poverty
African-American and Latino-American children are three times as likely as European-American youth to be living in poverty.
Broken families
African Americans less likely to be living with both of their biological parents
Gender
Boys more likely than girls to engage in crimes of violence
Girls more likely than boys to commit status offenses

44. Suicide: When the Adolescent Has Nothing - Except Everything - to Lose44

45. Suicide: When the Adolescent Has Nothing — Except Everything — to Lose
Suicide is the third leading cause of death among adolescents.
Since 1960, the suicide rate has tripled for young people, ages 15 to 24.
1 to 2 American adolescents in 10,000 commit suicide each year.
1 in 10 has attempted suicide at least once.

46. Risk Factors in Suicide
Suicidal adolescents experience four areas of psychological problems
(1) Confusion about the self
(2) Impulsiveness
(3) Emotional instability
(4) Interpersonal problems
Some suicidal teenagers are high achieving, rigid perfectionists who have set impossibly high expectations for themselves.
Feel depressed when they compare themselves to others negatively
Adolescent suicide attempts more common after stressful life event

47. Risk Factors in Suicide (cont’d)
Stressful life events can include
breaking up with a boyfriend/girlfriend
death of a parent or friend
a family member leaving home
Other factors include concerns over sexuality, school grades, problems at home, substance abuse, being “found out” for something like failing grades, or getting arrested
Suicide runs in families.

48. Risk Factors in Suicide (cont’d)
Suicidal warning signs include
belief that it is acceptable to kill one’s self
drug abuse and other kinds of delinquency
victimization by bullying
extensive body piercing
stress, hostility, depression, and other psychological disorders
heavy smoking
low self-esteem
increasing age from 11 to 21

49. Ethnicity, Gender, and Suicide
Native-American and Latin-American teenagers have highest suicide rates
due in part to stresses they are exposed to
lack of access to healthcare
European-American teens are next highest rate
African-American teens least likely to attempt or think about suicide
3 times as many female as males attempt a suicide
4 times as many males complete a suicide
Males use rapid and lethal methods, females use drugs