Adolescence: Social and Emotional Development

Adolescence: Social and Emotional Development
CHAPTER 16 Adolescence: Social and Emotional Development

Learning Outcomes LO1 Discuss the formation of identity in adolescence. LO2 Discuss relationships with parents and peers during adolescence. LO3 Discuss sexuality during adolescence, focusing on sexual identity and teenage pregnancy. LO4 Discuss the characteristics of juvenile delinquents. LO5 Discuss risk factors for adolescent suicide. LO6 Discuss the (theoretical) stage of emerging adulthood. © Angelika Stern/iStockphoto.com

TRUTH OR FICTION? T-F American adolescent males are more concerned about occupational choices than American adolescent females. T-F Adolescents are in a constant state of rebellion against their parents. T-F Most adolescents’ friends are “bad influences.” T-F About 800,000 American teenagers become pregnant each year. T-F Suicide is the leading cause of death among American adolescents. T-F Adolescents become adults at age 21. Truth or Fiction Questions. Good to open class discussion on topics covered in this chapter. Answers are distributed throughout slides as encounter in text. © iStockphoto.com

LO1 Development of Identity: “Who Am I?”
© Angelika Stern/iStockphoto.com

Development of Identity: Who Am I?
Formation of Identity Erikson and Identity Development: Erikson’s 5th Stage of Development is the Identity vs. Identity Diffusion The primary task is to develop ego identity (a sense of who they are and what they stand for). They are faced with choices about their future occupations, political and religious beliefs, and gender roles. Now that they are in formal-operational thinking, they are able to weigh options abstractly.

Formation of Identity Aspects of Erikson’s and Identity Development: Psychological Moratorium: A time when teens experiment with different roles, values, beliefs, and relationships Identity Crisis: The time when they examine their values and make decisions about life roles Those that are successful develop a strong sense of who they are and what they stand for. Those who do not may be intolerant of people who are different and blindly follow people who adhere to convention. In a effort to “fit in” many teens imitate peers’ clothing, hairstyles, speech, and ideals. Teens in developed nations may feel overwhelmed by the wide array of choices. But teen girls of color in the inner-cities may not have as many choices; college is not an option and they may become sexually active due to local custom and peer pressure.

“Identity Statuses” James Marcia Theory of identity statuses representing 4 combinations of the dimensions of exploration and commitment: Exploration: involves active questioning and searching among alternatives to establish goals, values, and beliefs Identity Diffusion: no commitments and no effort to establish any; younger teens or older teens who are alienated and rebellious Moratorium: actively exploring options and attempting to make choices Commitment: a stable investment in one’s goals,values, or beliefs Foreclosure: commitments are made without considering options; usually made early based on role models Identity Achievement: options have been explored and individual has relatively firm commitments; they generally have high self-esteem and self-acceptance

Table 16.1 – The Four Identity Stages
Of James Marcia

Development of Identity Statuses Before high school little interest in identity is shown. During high school and college, teens move from diffusion and foreclosure to moratorium and achievement. The greatest gains are made in college years where students are exposed to a variety of lifestyles, beliefs, and career choices. College seniors have a stronger sense of identity than 1st year students.

Ethnicity and Development of Identity European American teens, who belong to the dominant culture in the U.S., are only faced with one set of cultural values to assimilate. Developing one’s identity is more complex for members of ethnic minority groups, as they must tackle incorporating two sets of values: those of their dominant culture and those of their ethnic culture Some use the “cafeteria” method, taking a little from each culture. Teens of minority groups may experience prejudice and discrimination. Their family cultural heroes are ignored and role models can be a problem especially for those living in poverty.

Ethnicity and Development of Identity, cont. Teens of minority groups face a double issue: if they identify with the dominant culture, they may be rejected by the minority group, and if they reject the dominant group, they may limit their opportunities for advancement in the larger society. © Cindy Charles/PhotoEdit

Ethnicity and Development of Identity, cont. Three Stages of Ethic Identity: Unexamined ethic identity Similar to Marcia’s statuses of diffusion or foreclosure Ethnic identity search Similar to Moratorium: some event may trigger awareness of ethnicity and exploration begins; participation in cultural events and reading and discussion Achieved ethnic identity Involves self-acceptance as a member of one’s ethnic group

Sex and Development of Identity Erikson’s views obviously reflect the times he lived in; he believed sex differences played a role in developing an identity in both relationship and occupational choices as well as other matters Women: Stressed relationship matters; their identity was bound by their roles as wife and mother Men: Were more concerned about occupations, and ideological matters Today’s cultural views show: Both male and female teens are concerned with occupational choices, but females are more likely to integrate occupational and family plans. This sex difference may persist because females continue to be primarily responsible for child rearing even though most work outside the home. Answer to T-F? # 1 - American adolescent males are more concerned about occupational choices than American adolescent females. FICTION - Though females remain more likely to integrate occupational and family plans, studies show this to be untrue.

Development of the Self-Concept Before adolescence, children describe themselves in terms of their physical characteristics and their actions. Moving into adolescence, they begin to add psychological characteristics and social relationships into their self descriptions. The self-concept becomes more differentiated with more categories. They may be contradictory, being one way with parents and another with peers. These conflicts reach a peak around age 14 and then decline as the advanced formal-operational skills of older teens allow more integration of contradictions into the self-concept.

Self-Esteem The growing cognitive maturity of younger teens makes them aware of the disparity between their ideal self and their real self, especially in terms of physical appearance. Boys fantasize about having physiques of warriors they see in videos or on TV. Girls just want to be thin, thin, thin. After hitting a low point around age 12-13, self-esteem gradually improves. For most, low self-esteem is only temporary; for others, it reaches serious levels of depression and suicidal ideation. Emotional support from parents and peers is crucial. Most teens who feel highly regarded feel positive about themselves. In early teens, parents and peers are important but in later teen years it is peer support that carries more weight.

LO2 Relationships with Parents and Peers

Relationships with Parents and Peers
During adolescence, children spend less time with their parents overall, but more with their mothers than with fathers. Typically, they have more conflicts with mothers but still view them as being more supportive. Adverse relationships with fathers are often linked to depression in teens. The decrease in time spent with family reflects the teens striving for independence. But teens who feel close to parents have more self-reliance, self-esteem, do better in school, and adjust better. © Blend Images/Jupiterimages

Relationships with Parents, cont. In early adolescence, bickering with parents increases and shared activities and expression of affection decrease. Conflicts generally focus on everyday living, such as chores, homework, curfews, appearance, finances, and dating issues. Even though these “power” struggles take place, most of the time parents and teens are quite similar in their values and beliefs regarding larger issues like politics, religion, and economics. As the teens get older, parental controls relax and the use of punishment is diminished. Answer to T-F? # 2 - Adolescents are in a constant state of rebellion against tier parents. FICTION - Parents and teens are usually quite similar in their values and beliefs regarding social, political, religious, and economic issues.

Relationships with Parents, cont. Parenting Styles: Differences in parenting styles continue to influence development of adolescents. Authoritative Parents: Are willing to exert control but explain reasons for doing so Teens with this type of parent show the most competent behaviors. They are more self-reliant, do better in school, have better mental health, and show the lowest incidence of psychological problems and misconduct, including drug use.

Relationships with Peers Although relationships with parents generally remain positive, the role of peers becomes increasingly more important. Friendships in Adolescence: Teens have more friends than younger children. They usually have one or two “best friends” and several good friends. They spend much of their time with friends, and communicating with them via phone, texting, or IMing. Teens and their friends are usually the same age, race, and sex.

Relationships with Peers Friendships in Adolescence, cont: Teen friends usually share similar attitudes about school, drinking, drug use, and sexual activities. Teens with close friends have higher self-esteem. Girls tend to have a smaller, closer circle of friends than do boys. Girls are more likely to disclose secrets, share thoughts and feelings with friends, and engage in unstructured activities. Boys are more likely to engage in organized activities, such as games and sports. Answer to T-F? # 3 - Most adolescents’ friends are “bad influences.” FICTION - Parents and peers are usually complementary rather than competing influences.

Relationships with Peers Peer Groups: Teen groups function with less adult guidance/control than younger age groups. Teens also integrate sexes as opposed to same sex groups at younger ages which may lead to dating or romantic relationships. Most teens belong to one or more peer groups:

Relationships with Peers Peer Groups: Cliques: Consist of 5-10 individuals that spend time together and share activities and confidences. Crowds: Are larger groups: they may or may not spend much time together and are identified by their activities or attitudes that are labeled accordingly “Jocks,” “brains,” “druggies,” “nerds” The most negatively labeled (“druggies” and “rejects”) show higher levels of alcohol and drug abuse, delinquency and depression.

Relationships with Peers Dating and Romantic Relationships: Romantic relationships begin during early and mid adolescence. They tend to be casual and short-lived in early teens but become more stable and serious in later teens. The typical sequence in heterosexual dating follows a pattern: “Hanging out” together in group activities (going to the mall) Group dating (joining a mixed-sex group at the movies) Traditional two-person dating Dating serves a number of functions: Just having fun! Gaining prestige Learning how to relate to others Preparation for adult courtship

Relationships with Peers Peer Influence: Parental and peer influence is usually complementary rather than competitive. Teens are more likely to conform to peer standards in matters of style and taste, such as clothing, hairstyles, speech patterns, and music. But more likely to agree with parent on morals, education, and career goals Peer pressure is less influential in early teens, peaking in mid teens, and declines after 17. Peers provide support and provide a standard to measure their own behavior by as they develop independence from the family.

LO3 Sexuality © Angelika Stern/iStockphoto.com

Sexuality Sexual activity in adolescence takes many forms.
Three different aspects are: Sexual Identity Sexual behaviors Teenage pregnancy

Sexuality Sexual Identity Heterosexuals Homosexuals Bisexuals
Are sexually attracted to people of the opposite sex Represent the majority of people and teens Homosexuals Are sexually attracted to people of the same sex Bisexuals Are sexually attracted to people of both sexes Terms of reference Male homosexuals: “gays” Female homosexuals: “lesbians” Often both males and females are categorized together as “gays.”

Sexuality Sexual Identity, cont. Steps of development:
Acknowledgment of attraction Self-labeling Sexual contact Eventual disclosure Process of disclosure “Coming out” or accepting one’s homosexual orientation and making an open declaration to others; teens often anticipate a negative reaction from family, but some families are accepting. Always at risk for rejection and being ostracized Depression and suicide rate are higher in gay youth. They often engage in substance abuse, run away from home, and do poorly in school.

Sexuality Sexual Behavior Masturbation: Sexual self-stimulation
The most common sexual outlet in teens Most adolescents masturbate at some time. Nearly universal among males; less common in females Unclear if attribution can be made to stronger sex drive in male teens or if female teens have greater social constraints, or both. Beliefs that it is harmful or guilt may lessen the incidence But it is not physically harmful

Sexuality Sexual Behavior Male-Female Sexual Behavior:
Teens are dating earlier than in past generations. Earlier daters are more likely to engage in sex but not always; teens who have close relationships with their parents are less likely to initiate sex at an early age. The earlier sex is initiated the less likelihood contraception will be used but may not always lead to pregnancy. Most teens engage in “petting” and do not consider themselves as having sex unless they engage in intercourse. The percentage of teens engaging in sex in high school has been declining since the early 1990s. Still 40-50% have had intercourse 42% of girls age engage in oral sex 72% of girls age engage in oral sex

Sexuality Sexual Behavior Male-Female Sexual Behavior, cont.
Hormonal changes are partly responsible for onset of sexual activity, especially in males. Social factors may play a greater role in girls. Secondary sex characteristics probably play a role in attractions. Early maturing girls are more likely to have older boyfriends that may draw them into sexual relations. Peer pressure plays a large role in teens decision to engage in sexual activities. Most teen are likely to get education about sex from peers and media sources rather than parents or school. Achieving good grades in school is associated with delayed transition from virgin to non-virgin status.

Figure 16.1 – Percentage of Students in Grades 9-12 Who Report Having Had Sexual Intercourse

Sexuality Sexual Behavior Teenage Pregnancy:
Most women in developed nations defer pregnancy until late 20s, 30s, or even into 40s Most teen pregnancies are accidental and without committed partners; attributed to: Failure to use contraception or use it reliably Some are on purpose to coerce a commitment from the boy Some are rebelling against parents and cultural mores Most just miscalculate the odds For all these reasons, there are about 800,000 teen pregnancies every year. Numbers have dropped from peak of 1 million in the early-mid 1990s; attributed to educational efforts by school, media, and religious organizations But there is an increase beginning to be seen again Nearly half of teen pregnancies end in abortion. Answer to T-F? # 4 - About 800,000 American teenagers become pregnant each year. TRUE

Figure 16.2 – Birth Rates for Teenagers by Age, United States, 1980-2006
Source: Hamilton et al. (2007).

Sexuality Sexual Behavior Consequences of Teenage Pregnancy:
For the teens who choose to keep their babies and have the resources to do so, the outcome is generally good. Females tend to be healthy in late adolescence. However, the medical, social, and financial costs of unplanned or unwanted pregnancies in teens are enormous both to mothers and children. Teen mothers are more likely to experience medical complications and labor is likely to be prolonged. There is greater risk for premature birth and low birth-weight babies. Teen mothers (especially from lower SES) are less likely to get adequate prenatal care or get adequate nutrition. Teen mothers are less likely to graduate from high school or move on to college. Teen mothers are more likely to need public assistance. Teen fathers typically cannot support themselves, much less care for a family.

Sexuality Sexual Behavior Preventing Teenage Pregnancy:
Over the past several decades there have been dramatic increases in programs to help prevent teen pregnancies. Prevention efforts include educating teens about sex and contraception and providing family planning services. The majority of American parents want their children to have sex education in the schools. Although some fear that sex education will increase sexual activity, some programs actually delay the onset of sexual activity. For those who are already sexually active, sex education is associated with increased use of effective contraception.

Sexuality What Parents Want from Sex Education Courses
99% want their children to be taught about sexually transmitted infections. 96% want them to understand “how babies are made.” 95% would like them to be encouraged to wait to have sex until they are older. 94% want discussions to cover birth control. 85% want discussions to cover abortion. 73% want discussions to cover sexual orientation. 72% want discussions to cover oral sex. 71% want their teens to get birth control without parental permission. Information from Boxed Feature - What Parents Want from Sex Education Courses

LO4 Juvenile Delinquents

Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile Delinquency
Refers to children or teens who engage in illegal activities and come into contact with the criminal justice system The most extreme include homicide, rape, and robbery. Less serious (called status offenses) include truancy, drinking, running away from home, and sexual promiscuity. © Maxim Lysenko/iStockphoto.com

Juvenile Delinquency Juvenile Delinquency, cont.
Antisocial and criminal behaviors dramatically increase in many cultures during adolescence. 4 in 10 serious crimes are committed by those under age 21. About 3 in 0 by those under age 18. Many delinquent acts do not result in arrest or conviction. Many cases are disposed of informally, such as referral to a mental health agency.

Juvenile Delinquency Ethnicity, Sex, and Juvenile Delinquency
Boys are much more likely than girls to engage in delinquent behavior, especially violent crimes. Girls are more likely to commit status offenses. African American teens are more likely to be arrested than European American teens. African American youth make up only 13% of the teen population in the U.S. But 1/4 of juvenile arrests are African Americans; 1/2 of those are for violent crimes. The delinquency rate for African American teens is more than 2 times that of European American teens.

Juvenile Delinquency Ethnicity, Sex, and Juvenile Delinquency, cont.
Possible Explanations: Differential Offending Hypothesis: Suggests actual racial differences in the incidence and seriousness of the crimes Differential Treatment Hypothesis: Suggests they do not behave differently but get treated differently (intentionally or accidentally) by the system The system expects worse behavior so polices them more and treats them more harshly. African American teens have more interaction with the juvenile justice system and are more likely to think of themselves as criminals.

Juvenile Delinquency Ethnicity, Sex, and Juvenile Delinquency, cont.
Possible Explanations: Economic and family factors: African American and Latino/a American children and teens are 3 times more likely to live in poverty than European Americans. African American and Latino/a American children are less likely to be living with both biological parents regardless if they are married. It cannot be stated that poverty or broken homes cause delinquency but they do appear to be risk factors.

Figure 16.3 – The Delinquency Cases Rate per 1,000 Juveniles

Juvenile Delinquency Ethnicity, Sex, and Juvenile Delinquency, con’t.
Who Are the Delinquents? Even if causes are unclear, there are a number of factors associated with delinquency. Aggressive, antisocial, hyperactive behaviors at an early age Lower verbal IQ scores, immature moral reasoning, low self-esteem, feelings of alienation, impulsivity And other personal factors: little interest in school, early substance abuse, early sexuality, and delinquent friends Families are lax and ineffective in discipline, show low levels of affection, high levels of conflict, physical abuse, severe punishments, and neglect. Parents and siblings of teen offenders are frequently antisocial, deviant, or criminals themselves. Teen delinquents usually live in neighborhoods where crime is “normal” and are frequently victims themselves, giving rise to feelings of anger.

LO5 Suicide: When the Adolescent Has Nothing—Except Everything—to Lose

Adolescent Suicide Suicide is the third leading cause of death among teens. About 1 to 2 American teens in 10,000 commit suicide each year. About 1 in 10 has attempted it. Since 1960, the suicide rate has more than tripled for ages Answer to T-F # 5 - Suicide is the leading cause of death among American adolescents. FICTION - Suicide is the third leading cause of death among adolescent, behind accidents and homicide

Adolescent Suicide Risk Factors in Suicide
Most suicides in teens and adults are linked to feelings of depression and hopelessness. Suicidal teens experience 4 psychological problem areas. Confusion about the self Impulsiveness Emotional instability Interpersonal problems

Adolescent Suicide Risk Factors in Suicide, con’t.
Many teens become depressed by making inappropriate and negative comparisons of themselves with others. Teen suicide attempts are more common after stressful life events, especially if they result in loss of social support such as a death or relationship breakup. Other contributors include concerns over sexuality, grades, family problems, substance abuse, and extreme body dissatisfaction. Suicide tends to run in families which could be genetic or social implications.

Warning Signs of Teen Suicide: Belief that it is acceptable to kill oneself Drug abuse and other kinds of delinquency Victimization by bullying Extensive body piercing Stress Hostility Depression and other psychological disorders Heavy smoking Low self-esteem Increasing age from 11 to 21

Ethnicity, Sex, and Suicide In 2007, 6.9% of U.S. high school students attempted suicide. Ethnic differences: Latino/as have highest rate at 10.2% African Americans are next at 7.7% European Americans are least likely with 5.6% Sex differences: Females are about twice as likely as males at 9.3% Males are at 4.6% However males are more likely to succeed and most likely to use lethal weapons whereas females are more likely to use medications that allow more time for interventions.

LO6 Epilogue: Emerging Adulthood—Bridging Adolescence and the Life Beyond

Epilogue: Emerging Adulthood
Defining “Adult” Stages of adulthood: Early adulthood; Middle adulthood; Late Adulthood Early adulthood typically seen as the 20s Legal definitions vary: Consent of marriage age varies from state to state but in general is permitted for teens. Legal drinking age is 21. Age for driving also varies. Other criteria: Holding a full-time job; becoming financially independent Living independently; establishing an equal relationship with parents Making one’s own value and belief judgments Accepting self-responsibility The new Emergent Adult is between years old.

A relatively newcomer to human developmental theory is characterized as a distinct period of development that is found in societies that allow young people an extended opportunity to explore their roles in life beyond adolescence. These tend to be affluent societies, found in developed nations, the U.S. included. Parents and social structures are in place to support these emergent or pre-adults while they continue to sort out their goals and identity issues. © Ashwin Kharidehal Abhirama /iStockphoto.com

Arnett (2007) summarizes the types of social and technological influences that have spurred the rise of emerging adulthood. Changes from a manufacturing based economy to an information-based economy increasing the need for advanced education and training Advent of birth control making it possible for late teens to become sexually active without becoming pregnant Increased social acceptance of premarital sex and cohabitation weakening the traditional connection between marriage and the onset of sexual activity; moving the median ages of beginning marriage and parenthood upward into the mid to late 20s The period of life from the late teens through the mid-20s becoming for many in the developed world, a period of advanced self-development and gradual laying of a foundation for “adulthood”

Historical view Erikson did not use the term “emerging adulthood” but did recognize the elongated period of adolescence in developed nations. He used the term moratorium to describe the quest for identity among people who dwell in extended adolescence. He and other theorists also believed it was more important to take the voyage to identity rather than foreclose it by adopting the viewpoints of others.

Although there are obvious advantages to prolonging the entry into full adulthood, there are also disadvantages. Remaining dependent on parents can compromise self-esteem Student loans for extended education can add debt to becoming an adult. Deferred marriage and child bearing may find women in a race with their “biological clocks.”

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