1. Research Design

2. Main Tasks of Research Design Specifying what you want to find out: this involves explaining the concepts you are interested in and how they will be measured (explication and meaning analysis). Specifying what you want to find out: this involves explaining the concepts you are interested in and how they will be measured (explication and meaning analysis). Determining the best way to do it: this involves determining whom or what you will explore, describe, or explain (unit of analysis); what time dimension is appropriate for your observations; and how you are going to do it (method). Determining the best way to do it: this involves determining whom or what you will explore, describe, or explain (unit of analysis); what time dimension is appropriate for your observations; and how you are going to do it (method).

3. Design Depends on Goals What is the purpose of the research? What is the purpose of the research? What shall we observe, among whom, for what purpose, and in what time frame? What shall we observe, among whom, for what purpose, and in what time frame? Exploration Exploration Often where inquiry begins Often where inquiry begins Informal methods, feasibility testing Informal methods, feasibility testing Description Description Detail the features of elements under review Detail the features of elements under review E.g., U.S. Census E.g., U.S. Census Explanation Explanation Usually the aim of social scientists Usually the aim of social scientists Relating variables to account for process Relating variables to account for process

4. Unit of Observation & Analysis Unit of observation Unit of observation What we look at to make observation What we look at to make observation E.g., People in a survey, articles in content analysis E.g., People in a survey, articles in content analysis Unit of analysis Unit of analysis What we are interested in studying What we are interested in studying Usually same as unit of analysis; sometimes different: Usually same as unit of analysis; sometimes different: E.g., Are “traditional” marriages more successful? E.g., Are “traditional” marriages more successful? Unit of observation: husbands, wives Unit of observation: husbands, wives Unit of analysis: marriage type (couple) Unit of analysis: marriage type (couple)

5. Types of Units of Analysis Individuals Individuals Groups Groups Organizations Organizations Social Interactions Social Interactions Social Artifacts Social Artifacts - However, bear in mind this is only one typology. - E.g., Lofland’s: practices, episodes, encounters, roles, relationships, groups, organizations, settlements, social worlds, lifestyles, and subcultures. - What is important is the logic of units of analysis.

6. Types of Units of Analysis Individuals Individuals Groups Groups Organizations Organizations Social Interactions Social Interactions Social Artifacts Social Artifacts - However, bear in mind this is only one typology. E.g., Lofland’s: practices, episodes, encounters, roles, relationships, groups, organizations, settlements, social worlds, lifestyles, and subcultures. - What is important is the logic of units of analysis.

7. Units of Analysis: Individuals Most common unit of analysis in social science/mass communication research Most common unit of analysis in social science/mass communication research Seek to explain differences between individuals and relationships among individual differences Seek to explain differences between individuals and relationships among individual differences Variables and Relationships: Variables and Relationships: E.g., Income, Age, Gender, Education E.g., Income, Age, Gender, Education E.g., Associated with differences in tolerance E.g., Associated with differences in tolerance

8. Units of Analysis: Social Groups Examples: Examples: Households, families, neighborhoods, gangs Households, families, neighborhoods, gangs Seek to explain differences between groups and relationships among those differences Seek to explain differences between groups and relationships among those differences Variables: Variables: Households: income, media use (Nielsen) Households: income, media use (Nielsen) Marriages: types, communication patterns Marriages: types, communication patterns Neighborhoods: crime rates, income stratification Neighborhoods: crime rates, income stratification

9. Units of Analysis: Organizations Examples: Examples: Corporations, Universities, Governments Corporations, Universities, Governments Groups with formal organizational structures Groups with formal organizational structures Seek to explain differences between formal social organizations and the relationships among organizational differences Seek to explain differences between formal social organizations and the relationships among organizational differences Variables: Variables: E.g., Corporations: employees, benefits, productivity E.g., Corporations: employees, benefits, productivity

10. Units of Analysis: Social Interactions Examples: Examples: Kisses, Arguments, Email exchanges, discussion styles Kisses, Arguments, Email exchanges, discussion styles Social interaction are usually the product of interplay between individuals. Social interaction are usually the product of interplay between individuals. Studies seek to explain different types of social interactions (ex. discussion as unit of analysis), the types of people engaging in certain interactions (ex. Individual as the unit of analysis) Studies seek to explain different types of social interactions (ex. discussion as unit of analysis), the types of people engaging in certain interactions (ex. Individual as the unit of analysis) Variables: Variables: Number of arguments, argumentative people Number of arguments, argumentative people

11. Units of Analysis: Social Artifacts Examples: Examples: TV programs, newspaper articles, documents TV programs, newspaper articles, documents Social artifacts are any product of social beings or their behaviors. Social artifacts are any product of social beings or their behaviors. Studies seek to explain differences between social artifacts, the artifacts produced by different source, and the relationships among these factors Studies seek to explain differences between social artifacts, the artifacts produced by different source, and the relationships among these factors Variables: Variables: Level of violence, number of sources used Level of violence, number of sources used

12. Faulty Reasoning & Units of Analysis Problems of drawing conclusions across units of analysis: Problems of drawing conclusions across units of analysis: Ecological fallacy Ecological fallacy Reductionism Reductionism

13. Ecological Fallacy Observed characteristic of group leads to: Observed characteristic of group leads to: Inference about individual members Inference about individual members Similar to Prejudice Similar to Prejudice Individual judgments based on beliefs about group Individual judgments based on beliefs about group E.g., Precinct voting records are unit of observation concerning support for democratic candidates E.g., Precinct voting records are unit of observation concerning support for democratic candidates Majority Black precincts vote democratic Majority Black precincts vote democratic You can not assume that Blacks uniformly vote democratic You can not assume that Blacks uniformly vote democratic Whites within precincts may be responsible for pattern Whites within precincts may be responsible for pattern

14. Reductionism Reducing complex phenomenon in a way that privileges particular units of analysis over others Reducing complex phenomenon in a way that privileges particular units of analysis over others E.g., Crime is a function of individual characteristics E.g., Crime is a function of individual characteristics What about social structures? What about social structures? Economists: Economic reductionism Economists: Economic reductionism Psychologists: Psychological reductionism Psychologists: Psychological reductionism Sociologists: Sociological reductionism Sociologists: Sociological reductionism Dominant paradigms often limit views Dominant paradigms often limit views

15. Time Dimension & Research Design Time and issues of causation Time and issues of causation Static designs: Static designs: Cross-sectional study Cross-sectional study Longitudinal designs: Longitudinal designs: Trend studies Trend studies Cohort studies Cohort studies Panel studies Panel studies

16. Cross-sectional Studies Static snapshot Static snapshot Slice of population at one point in time Slice of population at one point in time E.g., An opinion poll E.g., An opinion poll Inherent limitations: Inherent limitations: Inability to capture change over time Inability to capture change over time Making causal inferences is dangerous Making causal inferences is dangerous

17. Cross-sectional studies Top Global Concerns for 2003 % who list item among top 3 personal concerns Source: Roper Reports Worldwide 2003Roper Reports Worldwide 2003 Study of 30,000 consumers age 13 to 65 in 30 countries

18. Cross-sectional studies

19. Longitudinal Designs Multiple observations across time Multiple observations across time Tracking changes across time Tracking changes across time Maybe in response to stimulus that occurs between observations Maybe in response to stimulus that occurs between observations Testing for changes resulting from some intervening factor or event Testing for changes resulting from some intervening factor or event Pretest-Posttest design in experimentation Pretest-Posttest design in experimentation

20. Measures change in population over time Measures change in population over time Sequential cross-sections of the population Sequential cross-sections of the population E.g., Changes over time in: E.g., Changes over time in: Public knowledge levels Public knowledge levels Voter turnout rates Voter turnout rates Presidential approval ratings Presidential approval ratings Inherent limitations: Inherent limitations: Starting point Starting point Inability to capture individual change over time Inability to capture individual change over time Longitudinal Designs: Trends

22. Tracking changes in a group as they age Tracking changes in a group as they age E.g., People born in 1940 sampled every 10 years E.g., People born in 1940 sampled every 10 years Measure change across the aging process Measure change across the aging process E.g., Do people become more conservative? E.g., Do people become more conservative? Cannot answer this question with a cross-sectional design because differences in age may be due to cohort or lifecycle differences. Cannot answer this question with a cross-sectional design because differences in age may be due to cohort or lifecycle differences. Longitudinal Designs: Cohort Studies

24. Goes a step further: Goes a step further: Interviewing the same people more than once Interviewing the same people more than once Captures change in individuals over time Captures change in individuals over time E.g., NES (cross-sectional and panel) E.g., NES (cross-sectional and panel) How do people react over time? How do people react over time? E.g, Public health/info campaigns E.g, Public health/info campaigns The respondent mortality problem The respondent mortality problem Are those who drop out different? Are those who drop out different? Longitudinal designs: panel studies

25. Wave 1 Feb. 1999 N= 3,348 Wave 2 June 2000 N= 1,886 Wave 3 Nov. 2000 N= 1,282 Wave 4 July 2001 N= 964 Statement: “Most people are honest” On a six point scale ranging from definitely disagree to definitely agree. Source: Life Style Study – conducted by Market Facts on behalf of DDB- Chicago and Dhavan V. Shah Longitudinal designs: panel studies

26. Longitudinal designs: comparisons Cross-sectional study 2000 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 1990 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 2000 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 Cohort study Trend study 1990 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 2000 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 2010 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 81-90 Panel study 1990 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 2000 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 2010 41-50* 51-60* 61-70* 71-80* 81-90*