1. Educational Research: Qualitative Research Methods
Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

2. Qualitative research... Commonly called “interpretive research”
…its methods rely heavily on “thick” verbal descriptions of a particular social context being studied

3. Is useful for describing or answering questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices
…a helpful process for exploring a complex research area about which little is known

4. Illuminates the “invisibility of everyday life”
…by making the familiar strange, more examined, and better understood

5. Qualitative methods... historical research grounded theory ethnography
phenomenology
case study
symbolic interaction
ethology
action research
ethnomethodology

6. historical research
…studies available data to study, understand, and interpret past events

7. ethnography
…studies cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural settings

8. case study
…examines the characteristics of a particular entity, phenomenon, or person

9. ethology
…compares the origins, characteristics, and culture of different societies

10. ethnomethodology
…studies how people make sense of their everyday activities in order to behave in socially accepted ways

11. grounded theory
…investigates how inductively-derived theory about phenomenon is grounded in the data of a particular setting

12. phenomenology
…considers how the experience of particular participants exhibits a unique perspective

13. symbolic interaction
…investigates how people construct meaning and shared perspectives by interacting with others

14. action research
…teacher-initiated, school-based research used to improve the practitioner’s practice by doing or changing something

15. Generally speaking, qualitative researchers….
…spend a great deal of time in the settings being studied (fieldwork)
…rely on themselves as the main instrument of data collection (subjectivity; intersubjectivity)
…analyze data using interpretative lenses

16. …employ expressive language and voice in descriptions and explanations
…seek depth of perspective through ongoing analysis (i.e., “waves of data”)
…judged in terms of believability, trustworthiness, coherence, and the logic underlying researcher’s interpretations

17. The general characteristics of qualitative research...
 Data sources are real-world situations
 Data are descriptive
 Emphasizes a holistic approach (processes and outcomes)
 Data analysis is inductive
 Describes the meaning(s) of research finding(s) from the perspective of the research participants

18. Uses inductive reasoning…
…involves developing generalizations from a limited number of specific observations or experiences
…highly dependent on the number and representativeness of the specific observations used to make the generalization

19. Issues in qualitative research...
a. gaining entry
b. contacting potential research participants
c. selecting participants
d. enhancing validity and reducing bias
e. leaving the field

20. a. gaining entry...
 access is very much dependent upon the researcher’s personal characteristics and how others perceive the researcher
 may require considerable negotiation and compromise with a gatekeeper
 trust is earned, not given

21. b. contacting participants...
 gaining access
 dealing with gatekeeper(s)
 issues of building trust and ensuring confidentiality and anonymity

22. c. selecting participants...
 the goal is to get the deepest possible understanding of the setting being studied
 requires identifying participants who can provide information about the particular topic and setting being studied

23.  is fraught with difficulties in identifying and selecting an appropriate number of participants who can provide useful information about the particular topic and setting being studied
 utilizes purposive sampling

24. …(dis)confirming case …snowball (chain)
 types of purposive sampling…
…maximum variation
…homogeneous
…critical case
…theory-based
…(dis)confirming case
…snowball (chain)

25. …extreme (deviant) case
…typical case
…intensity
…politically important case
…random purposeful

26. …stratified purposeful
…criterion
…opportunistic
…combination (mixed)
…convenience

27.  two general guidelines: the number of participants is sufficient when…
…the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting
…the point at which the data gathered begins to be redundant (“data saturation”)

28. The threats to validity in qualitative studies...
observer bias…
…invalid information resulting from the perspective the researcher brings to the study and imposes upon it
observer effects…
…the impact of the observer’s participation on the setting or the participants being studied

29. d. strategies to enhance validity and to reduce bias...
 extend the time for observing the setting
 include more participants to make the study more representative
 focus upon building participant trust in order to access more detailed and honest data

30.  identify biases and preferences, seek them out by asking others
 work with another researcher and compare field notes and impressions from independent observations
 after observations are completed, offer participants an opportunity to validate accuracy of the verbatims

31.  journalize one’s own reflections, concerns, and uncertainties during the study and refer to them when examining the data
 carefully examine unusual or contradictory results for explanations (“outliers”)

32.  utilize a variety of data sources to confirm one another to corroborate participant information (“triangulation”)

33. e. leaving the field…
 The question is when and how to exit
…the bonds formed with study participants complicate leaving the setting
…time constraints
…when the amount of accessible data is sufficient

34. The basic steps of qualitative research...
1. Write a tentative research proposal
2. Intensive participation in a field setting
3. Collect detailed data from field activities
4. Synthesize and interpret the meanings of the field data
5. Write the research report

35. 1. The qualitative research proposal...
 defines area of study
 identifies setting or context of study
 specifies the kinds of data to be collected
 describes methods to be used
 provides the researcher’s rationale for undertaking the study
 identifies the study’s potential contribution(s)

36. 2. Intensive participation in a field setting...
 participation: as a participant (“participant observer”) or nonparticipant
 approach to participation: overt or covert
 requires experiencing the situation from the perspective of both an observer and a participant

37. 3. Collecting and analyzing data...
 primary tools include observations and interviews but can also include personal and official documents, photographs, recordings, drawings, s, and informal conversations
 multiple data sources are normative

38.  the researcher records descriptive as well as reflective notes about what one has seen, heard, experienced, and thought about a during an observation session

39. regarding field notes…
…put aside assumptions, experience context first
…see phenomena through participants’ perspective
…write up notes immediately following an observation

40. …detail is critical: include date, site, time, and topic on every set of field notes; leave wide margins for writing impressions; use only one side of a page of paper; draw diagram of site (if necessary)
…list key words first, then outline one’s observations

41. …keep the descriptive and reflective sections separate
…use memos to record hunches, questions, and insights after each observation
…number the lines or paragraphs for easy access

42. regarding interviews…
…the purpose is to explore and to probe the interviewee’s responses in order to gather in-depth data
…the interviewer inquires into the interviewees’ attitudes, interests, feelings, concerns, and values as these relate to the context being studied

43. …meaning is jointly constructed between the interviewer and the interviewee; meaning is not just a construction on the part of the interviewee

44. …be alert for openings in responses to probe more deeply, starting with mundane questions and gradually easing into more sensitive and more complex questions

45. …interview data collection techniques include taking notes during the interview, writing notes after the interview, or tape recording and transcribing the interview (the transcript is a “verbatim”)

46. Interview do’s and don’ts...
 Do listen more and talk less
 Do follow up on what is not clear and probe more deeply into what is revealed
 Don’t use leading questions; do use open-ended questions (“probes”)
 Don’t interrupt; do wait

47.  Do keep interviewee(s) focused
 Do ask for concrete details
 Do tolerate silence and space between interviewee’s responses; do allow the interviewee time to think
 Don’t be judgmental about or react to an interviewee’s opinions, views, or beliefs

48.  Don’t engage in debate with an interviewee
 Do record everything the interviewee says and note impressions of interviewee’s nonverbal behavior

49. 4. Synthesis and interpretation of the meanings of field data...
 a formidable task because data are thick and deep as well as voluminous and unorganized (“field notes”)
 involves a systematic and iterative process of searching, categorizing, and integrating data (“managing data”)
 understanding emerges as data are integrated

50. Analyzing field data…
data pieces
data categories
data patterns

51. four-step iterative process of data management...
a. reading and memoing to become familiar with data and to identify main themes
b. examining data to develop detailed descriptions of the setting, participants, and activities

52. c. classifying the data, including categorization, coding, and grouping into thematic units
d. interpreting and synthesizing the organized data into general conclusions or understandings

53. Involves working with field notes…
…deconstructing data into pieces
…reconstructing the data pieces into categories
…identifying patterns for understanding, synthesis, and interpretation

54. Criteria suitable for qualitative data analysis...
a. credibility or plausibility
b. transferability
c. including a methods section

55. credibility or plausibility
…to demonstrate that the study was conducted in such a manner as to ensure that the subject was accurately identified and described

56. transferability
…to demonstrate that the results of the study are generalizable to others in the original research context or to contexts beyond the original study

57. including a methods section
…to provide an in-depth description of the processes and methods used in the study

58. Strategies for analyzing qualitative data...
a. constant comparison method
b. negative case and discrepant data methods
c. analytic induction

59. constant comparison method
…compares new evidence to prior evidence to identify similarities and differences between observations

60. negative case and discrepant data methods
…the search for contradictory, variant, or disconfirming data within the body of data collected that provides an alternative perspective on an emerging category or pattern

61. analytic induction
…a process concerned with developing and testing a theory in order to generalize a study’s findings

62. 5. Writing the research report...
 provide a setting where the data were collected
 identify characters who provide information
 describe the social action in which the characters are engaged
 offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters

63.  offers an interpretation of what the social action means to the characters
 follow all APA Publication Manual guidelines

64. Mini-Quiz… True and false…
…Qualitative research methods are rooted in the disciplines of sociology, anthropology, and history rather than in mathematics.
True

65. True and false…
…The central focus of qualitative research is to provide understanding of a social setting or activity from the perspective of the research participants
True

66. True and false…
…Empathic neutrality requires a researcher to include one’s personal experience and empathic insight as part of the relevant data
True

67. …An interviewer constructs the meaning of the content of an interview
True and false…
…An interviewer constructs the meaning of the content of an interview
False

68. True and false…
…One of the first issues in qualitative research is to gain entry to a site
True

69. True and false…
…One indicator that an adequate number of participants has been selected is the extent to which the selected participants represent the range of potential participants in the setting
True

70. True and false…
…Purposive sampling strategies are especially useful in qualitative research
True

71. True and false…
…A qualitative researcher should be wary of potential participants who are extremely eager to be included in the study
True

72. True and false…
…A covert participant observer participates as well as collects data during an observation session
True

73. True and false…
…Each observation session has its unique focus and interactions but is guided by a protocol or list of issues that frame the observation
True

74. True and false…
…In qualitative research, data analysis begins as the researcher initiates data management
False

75. True and false…
…An interviewer will almost always meet face-to-face with an interviewee while some observers will not.
True

76. …Transcripts are the field notes of an interview session
True and false…
…Transcripts are the field notes of an interview session
True

77. True and false…
…Data analysis and interpretation are based on induction as the qualitative researcher discovers patterns emerging from the data and makes sense of them
True

78. True and false…
…There are no predefined variables to focus qualitative analysis of the data
True

79. True and false…
…Credibility or plausibility demonstrates that the study was conducted in such a manner that the subject was accurately identified and described
True

80. True and false…
…The process of analyzing qualitative research data follows a sequential four-step process
False

81. True and false…
…The ability of the researcher to induce or construct meaning from the data greatly influences the duration and quality of the data analysis
True

82. True and false…
…Implicitly or explicitly, a researcher interprets data whenever the researcher uses a conceptual basis or understanding to cluster a variety of data pieces into a category
True

83. Fill in the blank…
…Studying real-world situations as they unfold naturally; nonmanipulative, unobtrusive, and noncontrolling; open to whatever emerges due to a lack of predetermined constraints on outcomes
naturalistic inquiry

84. Fill in the blank…
…Immersion in the details and specifics of the data to discover important categories, dimensions, and interrelationships; begins by exploring genuinely open questions rather than testing theoretically derived hypotheses
inductive analysis

85. Fill in the blank…
…The entire phenomenon is understood as a complex system more than the sum of its parts; the focus is upon complex interdependencies not meaningfully reduced to a few discrete variables and linear, cause-effect relationships
holistic perspective

86. Fill in the blank…
…A detailed, thick description; inquiry in depth; direct quotations capturing people’s personal perspectives and experiences
qualitative data

87. Fill in the blank…
…Attention to process; assumes change is constant and ongoing whether the focus is upon an individual or an entire culture
dynamic systems

88. unique case orientation
Fill in the blank…
…The first level of qualitative inquiry requires the researcher to be true to, respectful of, and to capture the essential details of the individual context being studied
unique case orientation

89. Fill in the blank…
…To place findings in a social, historical, and temporal context; dubious about the possibility or meaningfulness of generalizations across time and space
context sensitivity

90. Fill in the blank…
…The researcher’s passion is understanding the world in all its complexity, not proving something, not advocating, not advancing personal agendas, but understanding
empathic neutrality

91. Fill in the blank…
…The researcher resides in the study context but disguises his or her identity from the other participants
covert participation

92. Fill in the blank…
…The researcher’s openness to adapting one’s research as understanding deepens and/or situations change; the willingness to pursue new paths of discovery as they emerge
design flexibility

93. Fill in the blank…
…The point at which the researcher begins to hear similar thoughts, perspectives, and responses from more or all of the participants
data saturation

94. Fill in the blank…
…Providing information to a participant about the nature and purpose of the study
informed consent

95. …The process of qualitative data collection
Fill in the blank…
…The process of qualitative data collection
fieldwork

96. Fill in the blank…
…The observer’s record about what has been seen, heard, experienced, and thought about during an observation session
field notes

97. Fill in the blank…
…Evolving data analysis involves a form of thinking on paper through which the researcher describes one’s mental explorations of ideas, themes, hunches, and reflections about the research topic
memo writing

98. Fill in the blank…
…An extensive, descriptive, and lucid report of the researcher’s observations, partially influenced by what the researcher sees but mainly by the detail and language the researcher uses in constructing the report
thick description

99. Fill in the blank…
…An purposeful interaction, usually between two people, focused upon one person attempting to access information from another person
interview

100. …The word-for-word transcript of an interview session
Fill in the blank…
…The word-for-word transcript of an interview session
verbatim

101. …Unusual or contradictory results from an observation or interview
Fill in the blank…
…Unusual or contradictory results from an observation or interview
outlier

102. …The point at which the data gathered becomes redundant
Fill in the blank…
…The point at which the data gathered becomes redundant
data saturation

103. …Creating and organizing qualitative data collected during the study
Fill in the blank…
…Creating and organizing qualitative data collected during the study
data management

104. Fill in the blank…
…The process of recording the researcher’s initial thoughts and early impressions of the data
memoing

105. Fill in the blank…
…The process where the qualitative researcher provides an accurate depiction of the settings and events that took place in it which yields an understanding of the context in which the study took place
description

106. Fill in the blank…
…The process of breaking down the data into smaller units, determining the import of the units, and organizing the units together again in an interpreted form
classifying

107. Fill in the blank…
…A qualitative method for classifying data where the researcher begins with a preliminary hypothesis and continuously refines it until there are no examples of the revised hypothesis not being upheld
analytic induction

108. Fill in the blank…
…A form of cross-validation that seeks regularities in the data by comparing different participants, settings, and methods to identify recurring results
triangulation

109. characteristics of a single person or phenomenon : _______________
Analogies…
content : method as
characteristics of a single person or phenomenon : _______________
case study

110. a group’s cultural patterns and perspectives : _______________
Analogies…
content : method as
a group’s cultural patterns and perspectives : _______________
ethnography

111. Analogies… content : method as
the link between a group’s everyday activities and its social structure : _______________
ethnomethodology

112. Analogies… content : method as
the link between participants’ perspectives and social science theory : _______________
grounded theory

113. the meanings and perspectives gained by interactions : _______________
Analogies…
content : method as
the meanings and perspectives gained by interactions : _______________
symbolic interactionism

114. How participants experience a variety of things : _______________
Analogies…
content : method as
How participants experience a variety of things : _______________
phenomenology

115. A change in student learning : _______________
Analogies…
content : method as
A change in student learning : _______________
action research

116. quantitative : qualitative population : _______________
Analogies…
quantitative : qualitative as
population : _______________
setting

117. quantitative : qualitative generalizability : _______________
Analogies…
quantitative : qualitative as
generalizability : _______________
transferability

118. This module has focused on...
qualitative research methods
…which describe or answer questions about particular, localized occurrences or contexts and the perspectives of a participant group toward events, beliefs, or practices

119. The next module will focus on...
action research
...teacher-initiated, school-based research used to improve the practitioner’s practice by doing or changing something