1. TWENTIETH-CENTURY PHYSICAL EDUCATION, EXERCISE SCIENCE, AND SPORT

2. MODERN PHYSICAL EDUCATION 1893—Thomas Wood—"The great thought in physical education is not the education of the physical nature, but the relation of physical training to complete education, and then the effort to make the physical contribute its full share to the life of the individual, in environment, training, and culture." 1893—Thomas Wood—"The great thought in physical education is not the education of the physical nature, but the relation of physical training to complete education, and then the effort to make the physical contribute its full share to the life of the individual, in environment, training, and culture."

3. THOMAS WOOD

4. 1891-1901—Stanford—physical education and health undergraduate curricula established1891-1901—Stanford—physical education and health undergraduate curricula established 1901-1932—Teachers College—physical education and health undergraduate and graduate curricula (1927—moved into health education)1901-1932—Teachers College—physical education and health undergraduate and graduate curricula (1927—moved into health education) Emphasized educational goals through "natural activities"—sports, games, dances, aquatics, arts, and recreation.Emphasized educational goals through "natural activities"—sports, games, dances, aquatics, arts, and recreation. 1927—The New Physical Education with Rosalind Cassady1927—The New Physical Education with Rosalind Cassady

5. LUTHER GULICK

6. YMCA Training School (1887-1900)YMCA Training School (1887-1900) Director of Physical Training for New York City Public Schools (1903-1908)Director of Physical Training for New York City Public Schools (1903-1908) 1903—Public Schools Athletic League in New York1903—Public Schools Athletic League in New York –Class athletics—track and field; basketball; baseball –Athletic badge tests—dash; broad jump; pull-ups –Interschool athletics—Madison Square Garden

7. LUTHER GULICK Jesse Bancroft served as Assistant Director for physical training in New YorkJesse Bancroft served as Assistant Director for physical training in New York Elizabeth Burchenal directed the Girls' Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League, which featured folk dancingElizabeth Burchenal directed the Girls' Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League, which featured folk dancing 1906—Playground Association of America1906—Playground Association of America 1913—Campfire Girls1913—Campfire Girls Play was the most important educational aspectPlay was the most important educational aspect

8. CLARK HETHERINGTON

9. Stanford under Wood (1893-1896—student and instructor)Stanford under Wood (1893-1896—student and instructor) Clark University under G. Stanley Hall— child-study and developmentalismClark University under G. Stanley Hall— child-study and developmentalism 1900-1910—Missouri—rid athletics of abuses (supported women's activities)1900-1910—Missouri—rid athletics of abuses (supported women's activities) 1923-1929—New York University—physical education curriculum1923-1929—New York University—physical education curriculum 1929-1938—Stanford1929-1938—Stanford

10. CLARK HETHERINGTON Play was a child's chief business in lifePlay was a child's chief business in life Stressed attainment of educational goals in physical activitiesStressed attainment of educational goals in physical activities 1910—Four phases of the educational process1910—Four phases of the educational process –Organic education –Psychomotor education –Character education –Intellectual education

11. JAY NASH

12. New York University (1926- 1953)New York University (1926- 1953) Influenced by HetheringtonInfluenced by Hetherington Recreation—part of total life experiences for all agesRecreation—part of total life experiences for all ages Emphasis on carry-over sportsEmphasis on carry-over sports

13. JESSE WILLIAMS

14. Teachers College of Columbia University (1919-1941)Teachers College of Columbia University (1919-1941) Expanded Wood's ideas of physical education as part of education, e.g., social education (John Dewey), unified whole, and living in a democratic societyExpanded Wood's ideas of physical education as part of education, e.g., social education (John Dewey), unified whole, and living in a democratic society "Education through the physical""Education through the physical" Physical development is a means to an end (educational objectives)Physical development is a means to an end (educational objectives)

15. CHARLES MCCLOY

16. YMCA—22 years of service at home and abroadYMCA—22 years of service at home and abroad State University of Iowa (1930-1954)State University of Iowa (1930-1954) Organic unity—physical dimension— the major aspect of the whole beingOrganic unity—physical dimension— the major aspect of the whole being “Education of the physical”“Education of the physical” Educational objectives—secondary to the development of the physicalEducational objectives—secondary to the development of the physical Measurement—to develop skill and strengthMeasurement—to develop skill and strength

17. PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT First playgrounds in urban settings First playgrounds in urban settings – 1880s—Boston—sand boxes—later in schools – 1890s—New York (Central Park), Boston, and Chicago provided green space for the upper class; opened playgrounds for others – 1894—Chicago—Jane Addams' Hull House—one of several settlement houses where play opportunities were provided for children

18. PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT Commonalities of early playgrounds Commonalities of early playgrounds – Preadolescent children – Summer months initially – Outdoor equipment – In urban (populated) areas – Philanthropic support (donated land); later cities financed – Supervisors were mothers and police

19. South Park in Chicago—fields, gymnasium, and other activity spaces South Park in Chicago—fields, gymnasium, and other activity spaces Sport was used as a means of social control for the assimilation of immigrants' cultures and the socialization of American youth Sport was used as a means of social control for the assimilation of immigrants' cultures and the socialization of American youth Began with playgrounds for children and transitioned into recreation for all Began with playgrounds for children and transitioned into recreation for all – 1906—Playground Association of America – 1906—Boys' Clubs of America PLAYGROUND MOVEMENT

20. PLAYGROUNDS TO RECREATION 1910—Boy Scouts of America 1910—Boy Scouts of America 1911—Playground and Recreation Association of America 1911—Playground and Recreation Association of America 1912—Girl Scouts 1912—Girl Scouts 1913—Campfire Girls of America 1913—Campfire Girls of America 1930—National Recreation Association 1930—National Recreation Association 1965—National Recreation and Park Association 1965—National Recreation and Park Association Clark Hetherington—The Normal Course in Play—to train recreation workers Clark Hetherington—The Normal Course in Play—to train recreation workers

21. RECREATION MOVEMENT Depression—increased leisure time—softball and bowling Depression—increased leisure time—softball and bowling Industrial Recreation—1940s— facilities and equipment provided for leisure time usage by workers— softball, bowling, and basketball Industrial Recreation—1940s— facilities and equipment provided for leisure time usage by workers— softball, bowling, and basketball 1950s—beginning of outdoor education movement—hiking, camping, and backpacking 1950s—beginning of outdoor education movement—hiking, camping, and backpacking

22. FITNESS 1965—Lifetime Sports Foundation— carry-over sports to play throughout life1965—Lifetime Sports Foundation— carry-over sports to play throughout life –Archery –Bowling –Badminton –Golf –Tennis 1970s—Fitness boom—jogging; tennis; racquetball; aquatic sports1970s—Fitness boom—jogging; tennis; racquetball; aquatic sports

23. ORGANIZED YOUTH SPORTS 1920s—American Legion baseball1920s—American Legion baseball 1930—Pop Warner Football—Joe Tomlin1930—Pop Warner Football—Joe Tomlin 1939—Little League Baseball—Carl Stoltz1939—Little League Baseball—Carl Stoltz 1950—Biddy Basketball—Joe Archer1950—Biddy Basketball—Joe Archer 1950—AAU age-group swimming; later wrestling, skiing, and track and field1950—AAU age-group swimming; later wrestling, skiing, and track and field 1967—AAU Junior Olympics1967—AAU Junior Olympics

24. PHYSICAL FITNESS 1953—Results of the Kraus-Weber Minimal Muscular Fitness Test: 58% of U.S. youth failed one or more items, while 9% of the European youth failed (tested flexibility) 1953—Results of the Kraus-Weber Minimal Muscular Fitness Test: 58% of U.S. youth failed one or more items, while 9% of the European youth failed (tested flexibility) – On stomach—Raise legs (10 seconds each) – On stomach—Raise upper body – On back—Raise legs – Straight leg sit-up – Bent-knee sit-up – Touch toes

25. PHYSICAL FITNESS 1956—President Eisenhower through an Executive Order established the President's Council on Youth Fitness as an outgrowth of the President's Conference on Physical Fitness 1956—President Eisenhower through an Executive Order established the President's Council on Youth Fitness as an outgrowth of the President's Conference on Physical Fitness 1956—AAHPER Fitness Conference 1956—AAHPER Fitness Conference June 1 -7, 1958—National Fitness Week June 1 -7, 1958—National Fitness Week

26. PHYSICAL FITNESS 1957—AAHPER's National Research Council developed the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test 1957—AAHPER's National Research Council developed the AAHPER Youth Fitness Test – Pull-ups (boys) – Flexed-arm hang (girls) – Sit-ups – Shuttle run – Standing broad jump – 50-yard dash – 600-yard run-walk – Softball throw

27. 1958—Operation Fitness sponsored by AAHPER to stimulate fitness nationally 1958—Operation Fitness sponsored by AAHPER to stimulate fitness nationally 1958—Results of the AAHPER Fitness Youth Test showed poor performance by youth (8500 boys and girls tested in grades 5-12) 1958—Results of the AAHPER Fitness Youth Test showed poor performance by youth (8500 boys and girls tested in grades 5-12) PHYSICAL FITNESS

28. 1961—President's Council on Youth Fitness published the "Blue Book" with suggestions for a school-centered program 1961—President's Council on Youth Fitness published the "Blue Book" with suggestions for a school-centered program – Identify the physically underdeveloped student and work to improve – Provide at least 15 minutes of vigorous activity daily for all – Use valid fitness tests to determine abilities and evaluate progress PHYSICAL FITNESS

29. 1994—Physical Best (AAHPERD's educational materials) combined with the FITNESSGRAM developed by the Cooper Institute 1994—Physical Best (AAHPERD's educational materials) combined with the FITNESSGRAM developed by the Cooper Institute – Aerobic capacity in a one-mile walk/run or pacer for young children – Body composition – Muscular strength and endurance using curl-ups, push-ups, or alternatively pull- ups, modified pull-ups, or flexed-arm hand and trunk lift – Flexibility using sit-and-reach PHYSICAL FITNESS

30. 1963—President Kennedy changed name to the President's Council on Physical Fitness 1963—President Kennedy changed name to the President's Council on Physical Fitness 1965—Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed improvement in students' fitness levels 1965—Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed improvement in students' fitness levels 1968—Aerobics (Kenneth Cooper) 1968—Aerobics (Kenneth Cooper) – male = 30 points per week – female = 24 points per week 1974—Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed no overall improvement in fitness levels since 1965 1974—Retesting of youth with AAHPER Youth Fitness Test showed no overall improvement in fitness levels since 1965 PHYSICAL FITNESS

31. 1981—AAHPERD Lifetime Health- Related Physical Fitness Test 1981—AAHPERD Lifetime Health- Related Physical Fitness Test – Body composition using skin-fold measures – Function of heart and circulatory system using a 1.5 mile or 12-minute run – Strength using bent-knee sit-ups in 60 seconds (number done) – Flexibility using straight leg with arm extension PHYSICAL FITNESS

32. REHABILITATION ACT OF 1973, SECTION 504—INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES IN EDUCATION “No otherwise qualified handicapped person shall on the basis of handicap, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or otherwise be subjected to discrimination under any program which receives or benefits from Federal financial assistance.”

33. PUBLIC LAW 94-142 The Education of all Handicapped Children Act of 1975 Required the development of an Individualized Education Program (IEP) for every child with special needs, including specifically for physical education

34. IDEA The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) has fostered significant changes in the lives of children with disabilities and their families and in the roles of schools and teachers in the education of children with disabilities. The basic tenets of IDEA have remained intact since the original passage of the law in 1975. However, each set of amendments has strengthened the original law.

35. Statement of the child’s present levels of educational performance (PLP) Statement of the child’s present levels of educational performance (PLP) Statement of measurable annual goals, including benchmarks or short-term objectives Statement of measurable annual goals, including benchmarks or short-term objectives Statement of special education and related services Statement of special education and related services Statement of any individual modifications in the administration of state or district wide assessment of student achievement Statement of any individual modifications in the administration of state or district wide assessment of student achievement Dates, frequency, location, and duration of services Dates, frequency, location, and duration of services Transition services Transition services INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAM

36. Physical limitations Deaf Blind Hard of hearing Orthopedically impaired Speech impaired Visually handicapped Injured Low skilled CATEGORIES

37. Mental limitations Mentally challenged Learning disabled Behavioral limitations Attention-deficit disorder Emotionally disturbed Interrelated (multiple handicaps) CATEGORIES

38. ADAPTED PHYSICAL EDUCATION Adapted physical education is for exceptional students who are so different in mental, physical, emotional, or behavioral characteristics that in the interest of quality of educational opportunity, special provisions must be made for their proper education.

39. HISTORICALLY Excused Corrective or remedial Individualized Mainstreaming Inclusion—integration of children with special needs with students in regular classes Least restrictive environment

40. MEN'S ATHLETICS Socially elite—horse racing, dancing, gambling, cards, and yachting Socially elite—horse racing, dancing, gambling, cards, and yachting Baseball (1744—England; not 1839 in America) Baseball (1744—England; not 1839 in America) Cycling—late 1800s Cycling—late 1800s Tennis—1874 from England Tennis—1874 from England Golf—Scotland Golf—Scotland Cricket and croquet clubs—late 1800s Cricket and croquet clubs—late 1800s 1891—Basketball—James Naismith at the YMCA Training School 1891—Basketball—James Naismith at the YMCA Training School 1896—Volleyball—William Morgan at YMCA 1896—Volleyball—William Morgan at YMCA

41. AMATEUR SPORTS—1850-1900s Athletic clubs (especially the New York Athletic Club)—provided sports opportunities for members (especially track and field) Athletic clubs (especially the New York Athletic Club)—provided sports opportunities for members (especially track and field) 1879—Amateur Athletic Union (1888)— "check the evils of professionalism and promote amateur sport" 1879—Amateur Athletic Union (1888)— "check the evils of professionalism and promote amateur sport" 1912—538 athletic clubs and the AAU had 19,000 members 1912—538 athletic clubs and the AAU had 19,000 members Competition offered (and said to control) 40 sports; later 16 sports—especially basketball, track and field, and boxing Competition offered (and said to control) 40 sports; later 16 sports—especially basketball, track and field, and boxing

42. MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS Students promoted, financed, and controlled athletics—faculty and administrators did not want to be involved (no standard rules or eligibility regulations) Students promoted, financed, and controlled athletics—faculty and administrators did not want to be involved (no standard rules or eligibility regulations) – Rowing—1852—Harvard over Yale – Baseball—1859—Amherst over Williams – Football—1869 (actually rugby)—Rutgers over Princeton

43. MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS Social function Social function Winning=fans=money=winning=fans=money Winning=fans=money=winning=fans=money Recruiting Recruiting Professional coaches Professional coaches Newspaper coverage Newspaper coverage Graduate managers Graduate managers Walter Camp controlled the collegiate football rules committee (1879-1925) Walter Camp controlled the collegiate football rules committee (1879-1925)

44. Control established in colleges Control established in colleges – Injuries; property damage; class absences; rule confusion; gambling; drunkenness; professionalism; commercialism; loss of values – Benefits—improved health; taught values such as fair play and teamwork; diminished use of tobacco and alcohol; reduced rowdyism; improved discipline; enhanced school spirit MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

45. Late 1800s—students unified various rules of sports Late 1800s—students unified various rules of sports Harvard faculty attempted to control class absences and to regulate athletic abuses Harvard faculty attempted to control class absences and to regulate athletic abuses – 1882—Harvard model with three faculty – 1885—added two students and one alumnus; – 1888—three faculty; three students; three alumni

46. 1895—Midwestern colleges (Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives) 1895—Midwestern colleges (Intercollegiate Conference of Faculty Representatives) » Required to be students » Six months residence for transfers » Must remain eligible academically MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

47. Representatives from 13 colleges attended the initial meeting in December, 1905, called by President MacCracken of New York University to investigate the future of football due to deaths and injuries, dishonesty, gambling, and eligibility; in January, 1906, a second meeting led to the establishment of the NCAA and the reform of football to prevent injuries and deaths; legalized the forward pass Representatives from 13 colleges attended the initial meeting in December, 1905, called by President MacCracken of New York University to investigate the future of football due to deaths and injuries, dishonesty, gambling, and eligibility; in January, 1906, a second meeting led to the establishment of the NCAA and the reform of football to prevent injuries and deaths; legalized the forward pass 1906—National Collegiate Athletic Association was established by 28 colleges 1906—National Collegiate Athletic Association was established by 28 colleges

48. AAU AND NCAA CONFLICTS Olympic team selection (1920s to the 1970s) Olympic team selection (1920s to the 1970s) – National Amateur Athletic Federation— 1922 Sanctioning of events Sanctioning of events Certification of records Certification of records 1978—Amateur Sports Act 1978—Amateur Sports Act

49. 1929—Savage study of college athletics found problems as reported in American College Athletics 1929—Savage study of college athletics found problems as reported in American College Athletics – Commercialism – Loss of educational values MEN’S INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

50. Faculty control—institutional or home rule Faculty control—institutional or home rule Conferences—save money; fewer classes missed; equal philosophy and size; rivalry Conferences—save money; fewer classes missed; equal philosophy and size; rivalry No seasonal coaches—in departments of physical education to gain faculty status No seasonal coaches—in departments of physical education to gain faculty status Rules of sports standardized and provide national tournaments (track and field—1921) Rules of sports standardized and provide national tournaments (track and field—1921) Recruitment and scholarship policies—Sanity Code (1948-1951) Recruitment and scholarship policies—Sanity Code (1948-1951) PRINCIPLES FOR THE CONDUCT OF INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETICS

51. National Junior College Athletic Association—1938 National Junior College Athletic Association—1938 National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics—1940 (only basketball until 1952) National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics—1940 (only basketball until 1952) High schools High schools – Following the examples of the colleges in structure – 1922—National Federation of State High School Athletic Associations

52. Activities among participants “within the walls” of an institution Begun in 1913 at the University of Michigan under Elmer D. Mitchell Initially organized and funded by athletics Initially organized and funded by athletics Later, administered through departments of physical education Later, administered through departments of physical education Today, comprehensive campus recreation opportunities are provided within student affairs Today, comprehensive campus recreation opportunities are provided within student affairs INTRAMURALS

53. Constructive use of leisure time Opportunity to experience success Physical fitness Mental and emotional health Social interaction and contacts Promote permanent participant interest Practice skills learned in physical education classes Training ground for future varsity athletes PURPOSES OF INTRAMURALS

54. Club sports—groups of students, faculty, and staff who get together to share a mutual interest in a particular sport or activity; European concept that spread to this country, clubs are self-organized, administered, funded, coached, and otherwise maintained Funding – – State appropriations (within physical education) – – Student fees CLUB SPORTS AND FUNDING

55. HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS Colonial period Colonial period – Horseback riding; dancing; fox hunting Next 100 years Next 100 years – Riding; walking; dancing; calisthenics Late 1800s Late 1800s – Croquet; cycling; hiking (with clothing restrictions) – Tennis—1874 – Gymnastics in bloomers

56. Basketball Basketball – 1892—Smith College (Senda Berenson) – 1896—Stanford defeated California in the first intercollegiate game – 1899—Standardized rules » No snatching the ball » Could hold ball only three seconds » Could bounce ball only three times » Divided court into three areas to limit exertion

57. HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS Basketball Basketball – 1936—two-division game – 1949—rover game in AAU; 1962 in colleges – 1970—full court game in colleges Colleges—track and field; field hockey; archery; rowing; golf Colleges—track and field; field hockey; archery; rowing; golf

58. HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS Preferred events by physical education teachers Preferred events by physical education teachers – Field Day—interclass play within a school – Play Day—mixed teams competed with a social emphasis – Sports Day—within own team, competition with a social emphasis – Telegraphic Meet—send scores to a central location

59. HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS Philosophical justifications for the opposition of women in competitive sports Philosophical justifications for the opposition of women in competitive sports – Competition might be physically and emotionally harmful – Undesirable examples from men's programs – Philosophy of mass participation – Societal belief of women as homemakers, not athletes

60. Participation rather than competition in 1909— about half of the colleges had intercollegiate competition, especially in the West and Midwest Participation rather than competition in 1909— about half of the colleges had intercollegiate competition, especially in the West and Midwest Allowed if these conditions met: Allowed if these conditions met: » Women officials and coaches » Audience by invitation only » College-financed only » No "win-at-all costs” attitude—for fun and social interaction Outside schools—Amateur Athletic Union sponsored leagues and tournaments Outside schools—Amateur Athletic Union sponsored leagues and tournaments

61. HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS High schools followed the colleges—but problems arose: High schools followed the colleges—but problems arose: – Males coached – Used boys' rules – Spectators allowed – Newspaper covered games – Competition was intense – All the above meant pressure to win

62. HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS 1917—APEA Committee on Women's Athletics—set standards and rules of sports 1917—APEA Committee on Women's Athletics—set standards and rules of sports 1917—Athletic Conference of American College Women 1917—Athletic Conference of American College Women – Opposed intercollegiate competition – Emphasis on participation by all – Aligned with physical education departments and teachers

63. HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS 1923—Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation 1923—Women's Division of the National Amateur Athletic Federation – Opposed international competition – Favored play days for girls and women – “A sport for every girl, and every girl in a sport"—National Section on Women's Athletics

64. HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS 1941—National Tournament in golf—opposed by the National Section on Women’s Athletics 1941—National Tournament in golf—opposed by the National Section on Women’s Athletics Industrial recreation and All-American Girls’ Professional Baseball League Industrial recreation and All-American Girls’ Professional Baseball League

65. HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS Increased Competition Increased Competition – Olympic development thrust after defeat by Russians in 1956 and 1960 Olympic Games – U. S. Olympic Development Committee in 1961—"to broaden the base of participation for girls and women in Olympic sports and to provide better experiences for the skilled athlete" – 1963-1969—National Institutes on Girls' Sports—to train teachers and coaches

66. HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS 1966-1967—Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics for Women—set up by the Division of Girls and Women in Sport 1966-1967—Commission on Intercollegiate Athletics for Women—set up by the Division of Girls and Women in Sport – Encourage and govern intercollegiate competition for women at all levels – Sanction intercollegiate events – Hold national tournaments—first national tournaments in track and field and in gymnastics

67. HISTORY OF WOMEN’S SPORTS 1969—Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women 1969—Association for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women – Members were colleges – Educational goals and purposes Set standards and policies for women's athletics Set standards and policies for women's athletics – NAGWS game rules – Separated from NAGWS in 1979 – 39 championships in 17 sports Ended June, 1982 Ended June, 1982

68. TITLE IX OF THE EDUCATION AMENDMENTS OF 1972 "No person shall on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, be treated differently from another person or otherwise be discriminated against in any interscholastic, intercollegiate, club or intramural athletics offered by a recipient, or no recipient shall provide athletics separately on such basis."

69. TITLE IX TIMELINE 1975—Federal government published guidelines for Title IX 1976—Schools and 1978 (colleges) required to be in full compliance with Title IX 1979—Congress adopted its policy interpretation of Title IX 1984—United States Supreme Court ruled in Grove City College v. Bell that Title IX was applicable only to educational programs that directly received federal funding

70. TITLE IX TIMELINE 1988—Congress passed (over presidential veto) the Civil Rights Restoration Act, which stated that Title IX applied on an institution- wide basis, including athletics 1992—United States Supreme Court ruled in Franklin v. Gwinnett County Public Schools that plaintiffs could sue for compensatory and punitive damages in cases alleging intentional discrimination

71. TITLE IX TIMELINE 1993—NCAA released the report of its Gender Equity Task Force report that showed that women comprised 35% of the varsity athletes; received 30% of the athletic grant-in-aid dollars; were allocated 17% of the recruiting dollars; received 23% of the operating budget dollars; had access to 37% of the athletic opportunities for participation

72. 1996—Females comprised 42% of the United States Olympic team competing in Atlanta; they won 38% of the medals awarded to athletes from the United States 1997—United States Supreme Court refused to grant certiorari and hear the appeal of Cohen v. Brown University, thus affirming that schools and colleges must provide varsity athletic positions for males and females matching the overall percentage of the student body TITLE IX TIMELINE