1. Understanding Human Sexuality: Theory and Research
Chapter Two:
Understanding Human Sexuality: Theory and Research

2. Agenda Distinguish Between Theory and Research
Summarize Main Points of Influential Theories
Discuss Significant Research Projects
Review Research Methodologies

3. Distinction Between Theory and Research
Theories are the intellectual structure (assumptions, principles, methods) for understanding sexuality
Research helps answer questions about human sexuality
Many disciplines conduct research in sexuality, varying in the questions asked and scientific approaches taken

4. Theories of Human Sexuality

5. Theories About Sexuality
Many theories guide our thoughts about human sexuality
Psychological
Biological
Evolutionary
Sociological
Feminist
Queer
Most theorists utilize multiple perspectives

6. Psychological Theories
Psychoanalytic Theory
Behavioral Theory
Social Learning Theory
Cognitive Theory
Humanistic Theory

7. Psychological: Psychoanalytic Theory
Freud ( )
Most influential psychological theory of sexuality
Sex drive is a very important life force
Two controversial concepts:
Personality Formation
Psychosexual Development

8. Fact that Might Only Interest Me
Karen Horney was a psychoanalytic therapist who trained with Freud.
In response to Freud’s assertion that women demonstrated “penis envy”, she suggested that men had “womb envy” because they are preoccupied with sexual intercourse.

9. Psychological: Behavioral Theory
Only study overt behavior; ignore internal states
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
reinforcement
punishment
Behavior modification – tool to change unwanted behavior
Aversion therapy

10. Psychological: Social Learning Theory
Bandura
Basis in operant conditioning
Also consider internal events in affecting behavior
Identification and imitation of same-sex parent in development of our gender identity
Peer pressure influence on our sexuality

11. Psychological: Cognitive Theory
Individual differences in processing information
Behavior is a result of our perceptions and conceptualizations of our environment
Largest sex organ – the brain
We are sexually aroused by what we think is sexually arousing

12. Psychological: Humanistic Theory
Self-actualization – we try to be the best we can become
Unconditional positive regard allows us to become self-actualized

13. Biological Theory
Our sexuality is controlled by our physiology, genetics

14. Evolutionary Theory Combination of evolution and sociology
Sexuality serves to reproduce
Primary goal is to pass on one’s genes
Double standard

15. Sociological Theory Sexual expression varies across societies
Institutions influence rules societies hold regarding the expression of sexuality
Family
Religion
Economy
Medicine
Law
Media

16. Feminist Theory
Sexology is dominated by white, middle-class, heterosexist attitudes
Sexuality research is based on male sexuality
Social construction of sexuality based on power, historically held by men
Women as passive and submissive
Sexuality used by men to maintain power over women
Lack research on female orgasm, satisfaction

17. Queer Theory Heterosexism and homophobia should be resisted
Heterosexism is not the norm, with all else deviant
Sexual categories are cultural constructions that limit and restrain

18. Class Exercise Choose any topic associated with human sexuality.
How would the topic be explained from the
Psychological perspective (choose one psychological theory)?
Biological perspective?
Evolutionary perspective?
Sociological perspective?
Feminist Perspective?
Queer Perspective?
Discuss points of
Agreement
Disagreement

19. Sexuality Research

20. Recent Sexuality Research
Late 1980s, early 1990s increase in sexuality research
Prompted by HIV/AIDS
Primarily “problem-driven” research, not healthy sexuality
Pressure from conservative groups
Multiple disciplines studying sex has fragmented research

21. Recent Sexuality Research
Popular media sensationalizes and distorts information
Sexologist – researcher, educator, clinician specializing in sexuality; usually PhD
Researchers feel pressure to research select topics and avoid others
Academic programs specializing in human sexuality; need steady funding

22. National Health and Social Life Survey
Landmark Research
Kinsey
Masters & Johnson
The Janus Report
National Health and Social Life Survey

23. Kinsey: Large Scale Sexuality Research Begins in the U.S.
Most influential modern sexuality researcher
Atheoretical in the beginning because data on sexuality was lacking
He and 3 colleagues interviewed 18,000 subjects to obtain sexual life histories
Preferred use of 100% sampling
1947, established the Institute for Sex Research

24. Kinsey: Large Scale Sexuality Research Begins in the U.S.
1948: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male
1953: Sexual Behavior in the Human Female
Found many unacceptable activities to be widely practiced
Controversial work; had funding sources taken away

25. Sexuality Research in the United States
Masters & Johnson: In 1954, began to study the anatomy and physiology of intercourse in the laboratory
Electrocardiograph
Electromyograph
Penile strain gauges
Photoplethysmographs

26. Sexuality Research in the United States
Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Response (1966)
Four stage model
Women may have multiple orgasms
Sexuality stays with us as we age
Masters & Johnson: Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970)
Vaginal orgasms from clitoral stimulation

27. Sexuality Research in the United States: Homosexuality
Few large-scale studies
Hooker: Early 1950s; professionals could not differentiate gay and straight males
Bell & Weinberg: Homosexualities (1978)
majority of homosexual men and women do not conform to stereotypes
aren’t sexual predators
homosexuals and heterosexuals are similar in intimate relationships

28. Sexuality Research in the United States
The Janus Report (1993): large survey on sexual behavior in the U.S.; sectioned out regions in the U.S.; not a random sample
National Health and Social Life Survey, Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels (1994): Surveyed a representative sample of the U.S. on sexual behaviors and attitudes

29. Class Exercise
Earlier, I noted that research is primarily “problem-driven” research, noting that there has been limited research about healthy sexuality.
Why do you think there has been more attention to problems than healthy sexuality?
Identify research topics that would be associated with “healthy sexuality.”

30. Research Methodology

31. Sex Research Methods and Considerations
Validity – measuring what it is designed to
Reliability – consistency
Generalizability/Random Samples

32. Sex Research Methods and Considerations
Case study – individual cases explored to form hypotheses
Questionnaire – self-report attitudes, behavior, knowledge
anonymity
Interview – researcher records attitudes, behavior, knowledge
rapport, flexibility, expensive

33. Sex Research Methods and Considerations
Direct Observation – focus on behaviors
difficult to find subjects in sexuality research; expensive
Participant Observation – researchers monitor within a natural environment
much sexual behavior is in private

34. Sex Research Methods and Considerations
Experimental Method – establish cause and effect due to increased control
Random assignment
Independent variable – manipulated
Dependent variable – measured
Costly, artificial, results may not relate to the real world; ethical constraints

35. Sex Research Methods and Considerations
Correlations – describes a relationship between variables
Used when experiments are not possible
Cannot establish cause and effect

36. Problems and Issues in Sex Research
Ethical Issues – informed consent, confidentiality
Volunteer Bias – there are differences between volunteers and nonvolunteers; can’t generalize
Sampling Problems – samples of convenience (college students); generalizability questioned
Reliability – changes over time; memory

37. Class Exercise
Earlier you identified topics associated with healthy sexuality.
What methodology (or multiple methodologies) would you use to study this topic?
Are there ethical problems?
How would you recruit participants?

38. Sex Research in the Future: Beyond Problem-Driven Research
Need for financial support
Congressional and religious opposition
Reliance on pharmaceutical companies for funding
“Scientific underground”
Many unexplored topics within human sexuality
Future direction to understand emotional and relational aspects