1. The Use of Theory Part 2: QuaLitative and Mixed Methods
Part 2 of this module on the use of theory addresses qualitative and mixed research methods.
Produced by the Applied Research Center and the Alvin Sherman Library
Video: 11 min.

2. Theory Use in Qualitative Methods
The definition of theory remains the same but is typically applied differently in qualitative methods:
The theory provides a broad explanation of behavior and attitudes
Establish a theoretical lens (i.e., orienting lens)
Feminist perspective
Racialized discourse
Critical theory
Starts with an endpoint - a theory that is generated (inductive)
No theory is employed (the inquiry is developed explicitly from participants as seen in phenomenological approaches)
Qualitative researchers can apply a theory in their studies several ways. The definition of a theory remains the same as we used in Part 1 on quantitative studies, but the theory is typically applied differently in qualitative methods.

3. Theoretical Lens Theory Use in Qualitative Methods QUALITATIVE
The definition of theory remains the same but is typically applied differently in qualitative methods:
The theory provides a broad explanation of behavior and attitudes
Establish a theoretical lens (i.e., orienting lens)
Feminist perspective
Racialized discourse
Critical theory
Starts with an endpoint - a theory that is generated (inductive)
No theory is employed (the inquiry is developed explicitly from participants as seen in phenomenological approaches)
The use of theory in qualitative methods is to provide more of a broad explanation of behaviors and attitudes, as opposed to specifically identifying relationships between variables (as was seen in quantitative methods).
There are three main approaches of using of theory in qualitative methods. One approach is to establish a theoretical lens. The theoretical lens provides an orientation map for the researcher and guides the rest of the study. Examples of theoretical lens that are the commonly used include feminist perspectives, racialized discourses, and the critical theory.

4. Inductive – Grounded Theory
QUALITATIVE
Theory Use in Qualitative Methods
Inductive – Grounded Theory
The definition of theory remains the same but is typically applied differently in qualitative methods:
The theory provides a broad explanation of behavior and attitudes
Establish a theoretical lens (i.e., orienting lens)
Feminist perspective
Racialized discourse
Critical theory
Starts with an endpoint - a theory that is generated (inductive)
No theory is employed (the inquiry is developed explicitly from participants as seen in phenomenological approaches)
A second approach is to inductively generate a theory as seen in grounded theory approaches.

5. No Theory Theory Use in Qualitative Methods QUALITATIVE
The definition of theory remains the same but is typically applied differently in qualitative methods:
The theory provides a broad explanation of behavior and attitudes
Establish a theoretical lens (i.e., orienting lens)
Feminist perspective
Racialized discourse
Critical theory
Starts with an endpoint - a theory that is generated (inductive)
No theory is employed (the inquiry is developed explicitly from participants as seen in phenomenological approaches)
And, the third approach is to employ no theory. Instead, the researcher develops meaning and inquiry strictly based on participant data. This is most commonly used in phenomenological approaches.

6. Paradigms, Theoretical Lens, Foundational Theory
QUALITATIVE
Theory Use in Qualitative Methods
Paradigms, Theoretical Lens, Foundational Theory
Sometimes referred to as:
“Paradigms” of social science
Theoretical lens
Foundational theory (same as theoretical lens)
Conflict theory
Marxist theory
Structural functionalism
Symbolic interaction
Feminist perspective
Racialized discourse
Critical theory
Queer theory
Disability inquiry
The prevailing approach to theoretical applications in the qualitative method is the use of a theoretical lens- as opposed to generating a theory or using no theory. The use of a theoretical lens is also known as "paradigms" of social science, or the foundational theory.
Foundational theories are selected at a very early point in the research project. They guide the way the researcher views the study and how the research questions are ultimately developed. A foundational theory or paradigm also guides the selection of the particular research design. It is important to note that some qualitative researchers refer to foundational theories as theoretical frameworks.
Some of the most commonly known "big" theories or foundational theories are listed on this slide.

7. Theory Use in Qualitative Methods (cont.)
Applications
Theoretical lens or foundational theory
Grounded theory
Does NOT include initial a priori presentation of one of the “big” foundational theories
Critical-reflexive theory
So, let us recap. A theoretical lens or foundational theory begins with a theory that helps to establish the orienting lens and guides the development of the research questions.
In contrast, grounded theory does not start with an a priori presentation of one of the big foundational theories such as feminist or critical theory.
Another approach, no previously mentioned, is the critical-reflexive theory. Criticisms of foundational theoretical approaches and the grounded theory approach have led to a reflexive sociology, otherwise known as critical-reflexive theory. This is a mental process or practice by which researchers examine the origin and sources of the categories and theories which they bring to the research. These influences on research choices include the researcher’s own demographic and personal background and experiences. This approach is not often applied.

8. Types of Theories Theories can be broken down into types: QUALITATIVE
Grand theory
Mid-range theory
Micro-level theory
Theories in the qualitative method are sometimes broken down into types of theories
Grand theories (or macro theories) are non-specific and constructed from relatively abstract concepts. These theories are more difficult to operationalize.
Mid-range theories consider specific phenomena and involve a small number of concepts related to a restricted range of contexts.
Micro-level theories have narrowest range and are focused in specific phenomena and contexts.
Keep in mind that when reviewing and searching for theories authors do not typically indicate a theory as a grand, mid-range or micro-level theory.
All these theories would still be considered your foundational theory or theoretical lens.

9. Examples of Types of Theories
QUALITATIVE
Examples of Types of Theories
Types of Theories
Theories can be broken down into types:
Grand theory
Mid-range theory
Micro-level theory
Examples:
Type
Psychology
Social/Educational
Grand theory
Psychodynamic theory
Social construction
Mid-range theory
Five stage theory
Social interaction
Micro-level theory
Individual formation theory
Phenomenology
Psychodynamic theory is an example of a grand theory in psychology while social construction is a grand theory used in the social sciences and education. Five stage theory is a mid-range theory in psychology while social interaction is used in the social sciences and education. And finally, individual formation theory is an example of a micro-level theory in psychology while phenomenology is a micro-level theory found in the social sciences and education.

10. More Examples of Theories Used for Qualitative Methods
Professionalisation theory by Elliot Freidson
Labelling theory by Scheff
Negotiated order theory by Strauss
So, let's take a minute to look at several examples of theories used for qualitative methods pertaining to the study of groups. Professionalisation theory was developed in response to previous research that had only viewed the positive traits related to professional groups.
Labelling theory refers to the fact that research has a tendency to negatively label groups whose behaviour deviates from the norm. And finally, negotiated order theory was developed to address and advance the thinking about the way social order is maintained in organizations.

11. The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Researcher poses generalizations,or theories, and compares to past experiences and literature
Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories
Researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories
The process of research in qualitative methods is always non experimental. The researcher does not espouse to establish causal relations between variables. Depending on the application of the theory the process can be either inductive or deductive or some combination of induction and deduction.
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
Researcher gathers information

12. Researcher Gathers Information
QUALITATIVE
The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Researcher Gathers Information
For the purposes of this example of qualitative methods, we will use inductive logic. Thus, the researcher would start by gathering information.
Researcher gathers information

13. Open-Ended Questions and Fieldnotes
QUALITATIVE
The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Open-Ended Questions and Fieldnotes
Next, the researcher asks open-ended questions of the participants or records fieldnotes.
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
Researcher gathers information

14. Analyze Data to Form Themes
QUALITATIVE
The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Analyze Data to Form Themes
Researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories
The researcher then analyzes the data to form themes or categories.
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
Researcher gathers information

15. Look for Broad Patterns
QUALITATIVE
The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Look for Broad Patterns
Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
and then looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from the identified themes or categories.
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
Researcher gathers information

16. Pose Generalizations or Theories
QUALITATIVE
The Inductive Logic of Research in Qualitative Methods
Pose Generalizations or Theories
Researcher poses generalizations,or theories, and compares to past experiences and literature
Researcher looks for broad patterns, generalizations, or theories from themes or categories
Researcher analyzes data to form themes or categories
And finally, the researcher poses these generalizations or theories and compares them with past experiences and research literature. In other words, the researcher has gone from the specific data to the general theory. Remember, however that the researcher can also approach qualitative research from a deductive approach by selecting a foundational theory or paradigm that provides a lens for examining and interpreting the data collected. If this occurs, then the researcher starts with a theory and uses that theory to approach the process inversely by going from the general theory to the specific data.
Researcher asks open-ended questions of participants or records fieldnotes
Researcher gathers information

17. Example of a Theoretical Lens
We can see how a theoretical lens can be applied in this critical narrative analysis, for example. Key ideas are integrated from critical social theory and narrative inquiry. These provide a "lens" for considering how individual experiences have been shaped by broader social, political, and historical contexts. This process of going from the theory to an examination of the data illustrates a deductive approach.
Qualitative example with a theoretical lens: Haldenby, A. M., Berman, H., & Forchuk, C. (2007) Homelessness and health in adolescents. Qualitative Health Research, 17(9), 1232–1244.

18. Data Used to Generate Theory
In contrast, a grounded theory approach was selected for this example because the authors did not understand the specific factors and factor relationships that compromised the process of physical activity behavioral evolution so they could not start with some kind of theoretical lens. Instead, an iterative process of data collection and analysis was used to develop a theoretical explanation for the human behavior that was exhibited in the study. The theoretical explanation provided a framework for describing that process. Or, to put it simply, data were used inductively to generate a theory.
Harley, A. E., Buckworth, J., Katz, M. L., Willis, S. K., Odoms-Young, & Heaney, C. A. (2009). Developing long-term physical activity participation: A grounded theory study with African American women. Health Education & Behavior , 36(1).

19. Use of Theory in Mixed Methods
Mixed methods studies may:
Include theory deductively (theory testing)
Quantitatively oriented
Include theory inductively (an emerging pattern)
Qualitatively oriented
Use a theoretical lens and framework to guide the study
Emphasis is equal between QUAL and QUAN
Now let us consider the use of theories in mixed methods. The use of a theory in mixed methods can take different approaches.
The application of a theory in mixed methods studies can vary substantially based on the type of mixed method design. If the mm design is more qualitatively oriented then only a theoretical lens may be used to guide the application of the study.
If the mm design is more quantitatively oriented, then a theoretical framework can be applied. If the emphasis between qualitative and quantitative methods are equal then a theoretical lens and theoretical framework may both be applied.

20. Lit Review and Theoretical Perspective in Mixed Methods
This mixed methods article provides a good example of a study that is quantitatively focused. Framing theory is used to understand the process by which political advertising includes and excludes certain issues and groups. The frames described in framing theory are used to explain the selection of certain aspects of a perceived reality and act as independent variables that influence the audience's perception of certain issues.
Parmelee, J. H., Perkins, S. C., & Sayre, J. J. (2007). “What about people our age?” Applying qualitative and quantitative methods to uncover how political ads alienate college students. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1(2), 183–199

21. Chapter 1: Placement of Theory
Placement and Citation
Chapter 1: Placement of Theory
Chapter 1: Introduction
A brief introduction to the theory can be placed in the Introduction
Chapter 2: Literature Review
A separate section (usually in the early parts of Ch. 2) should be devoted to the identification and description of the theory
Citation – cite the original source of a theory.
Example – Smith and Wadestein (2009) used the Social Learning Theory as the theoretical framework in their study. The citation would look something like this: “…Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory was used as the theoretical…”
So, let's talk now about the placement of the theory in your research study.. In Chapter 1, a brief introduction to the theory can be placed in the Introduction for the chapter.

22. Chapter 2: Placement of Theory
Placement and Citation
Chapter 2: Placement of Theory
Chapter 1: Introduction
A brief introduction to the theory can be placed in the Introduction
Chapter 2: Literature Review
A separate section (usually in the early parts of Ch. 2) should be devoted to the identification and description of the theory
Citation – cite the original source of a theory.
Example – Smith and Wadestein (2009) used the Social Learning Theory as the theoretical framework in their study. The citation would look something like this: “…Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory was used as the theoretical…” In
Chapter 2, a separate section (usually in the early part of the literature review) should be devoted to the identification and description of the theory. This section is typically separated out by the use of an APA Level-2 heading. This positioning of the description of the theory is important because it sets the foundation for the rest of the literature review and development of the research questions. Having a separate section for the theory also makes it easy for the reader to follow and understand the logic of the paper.

23. Placement and Citation Citation
Chapter 1: Introduction
A brief introduction to the theory can be placed in the Introduction
Chapter 2: Literature Review
A separate section (usually in the early parts of Ch. 2) should be devoted to the identification and description of the theory
Citation – cite the original source of a theory.
Example – Smith and Wadestein (2009) used the social learning theory as the theoretical framework in their study. The text citation would look something like this:”Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory was used as the theoretical foundation for Smith and Wadestein’s (2009) study.”
You also need to include a citation for the original source of your theory, and you want to be sure to cite the original source regardless of the year it was first introduced. Not surprisingly, most original theories were developed many years ago. Once the original source is cited, then it is usually recommended to include recent research from within the last 5 years in the literature review. The purpose is to include recent studies that have utilized the theory as a foundation for your own examination.
For example, you might state that Smith and Wadestein (2009) used the social learning theory as the theoretical framework for their study.. However, the text citation acknowledging the source of the original theory might look something like this: "Bandura’s (1977) social learning theory was used as the theoretical.foundation for Smith and Wadestein's (2009) study."

24. Selected References
Anfara, V., & Mertz, N. T. (2006). Theoretical frameworks in qualitative research. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research design: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Reeves, S., Albert, M., Kuper, A., & Hodges, B. D. (2008). Why use theories in qualitative research? British Medical Journal, (337:a949), doi: /bmj.a949
Scott, G., & Garner, R. (2013). Doing qualitative research: Designs, methods, and techniques. Boston, MA: Pearson.
For more in-depth information on the use of theories, you can refer to these sources. This concludes Part 2 of the video on the use of theories. For help on using library databases to locate theories for your own studies, see the next video with tips on how to locate theories. Thanks.