1. Criminological Theory: Past to Present
Essential Readings
5th Edition
Francis T. Cullen, Robert Agnew, and
Pamela Wilcox

2. PART I. The Origins of Modern Criminology
In the past, criminological theory was dominated by demonic perspectives
Crime was the result of supernatural forces
“The devil made me do it”
Led to harsh sanctions for wrong-doers
Burn alive, exorcisms, purge body of evil spirits

3. The Emergence of Classical Theory
Demonic perspectives dominated until 1700s
Age of Enlightenment
Challenged by the “classical” criminologists
Most prominent classical criminologist was Cesare Beccaria
An Essay on Crimes and Punishments

4. Beccaria: An Essay on Crimes and Punishments
Presents the first modern scientific theory of crime
Published in 1764
Foundation for classical
theory
Draws heavily on Thomas
Hobbes

5. Classical Theory
Developed in reaction to a harsh and corrupt legal system in the 1700s
Judges interpreted laws to suit their personal interests, gave arbitrary punishments, engaged in bribery
Harsh sentences were often imposed
Classical theorists saw the system as unjust and ineffective and formulated proposals for its reform
Judges should not interpret laws as they are not legislators

6. Classical Theory vs. Demonic Perspectives
Classical Criminology
Crime caused by natural forces
Can observe and test
Prevent crime with swift, severe, and certain punishments
Demonic Perspective
Crime caused by supernatural forces
Cannot observe or test
Solve crime through ridding individual of evil spirits

7. Essential Ideas of Classical Theory
Individuals:
Are rational beings
Pursue their own interests
Often leads people to harm one another
Attempt to maximize their pleasure and minimize their pain
Enter into social contracts
Agree to give up some freedom to the state to prevent harm from occurring
State enforces the social contract through creating and establishing laws of the area

8. Essential Ideas of Classical Theory
To control crime:
Must deter people from criminal behavior (prevent others from committing crime by punishing wrongdoers publicly)
In order to be deterred, the pain associated with punishment must outweigh the pleasure associated with crime
Cost-benefit ratio
To be effective, punishments must be:
Known (universally read and understood)
Swift (more immediate, creates an association
between crime and punishment)
Severe (but proportionate to crime committed)
Certain (most important element)

9. Essential Ideas of Classical Theory
Why some individuals commit crimes while others do not is due to the cost–benefit ratio
Individuals evaluate the potential pains of punishment and pleasures of crime differently from other individuals

10. Impact of Classical Theory
Became the basis for legal systems in the United States, France, and other countries
Three lasting ideas based in classical criminology:
Laws should be applied to everyone equally
(blind justice)
Proper to just punish offenders
Control crime by increasing certainty and severity
of punishments

11. Three Problems with Classical Theory
Assumes everyone is motivated to engage in crime through pursuit of self-interests
Modern-day theories often argue that individuals and groups vary in their motivation
Assumes people are rational and engage in crime to minimize pain and maximize pleasure
Today we treat different groups of offenders differently (seen as less rational—juveniles, insane)
Other factors besides the swiftness, severity, and certainty of punishment influence whether someone does or does not engage in crime

12. Movement From Classical Theory to the Positivist School
Classical criminology dominated from late 1700s to late 1800s
Attacked by the positivist school
Crime rates were still increasing despite changes in the legal system based on classical thought
View of rationality challenged by biological sciences, especially Darwin’s work

13. The Influence of Cesare Lombroso
Challenged the view that criminals were rational, self-interested individuals
Argued that criminals were NOT normal and were biologically different from noncriminals
Criminals were “genetic throwbacks” or primitive
people in the midst of modern society
Described criminals as “atavistic”
The primitive/savage state of the individual compels them to commit crime

14. Lombroso’s Experiments
Worked as a physician in the army and the Asylum in Pavia
First idea came from examining skull of Vilella
Conducted extensive examinations with criminals and noncriminals
In 1876, developed a list of traits distinguishing between criminals and noncriminals

15. Lombroso: The Criminal Man
“Born criminals” —Make up 1/3 of all criminals
Resembled a stereotypical “caveman”
Have qualities of our ancestors
Traits include:
Large jaw
Large cheekbones
Strong canines
Scanty beard
Swollen/protruding lips
Arm span greater than height
Excessive wrinkling
Prehensile foot
Cheek pouches
Flattened nose
Hooked nose

16. Lombroso’s Later Research
Became convinced that environmental factors also played a role in crime
There are several types of criminals (not just the “born criminal”)
Criminoloid—minor offenders
Occasional offenders
Habitual offenders

17. Evidence for Lombroso’s Theory
His theory was too simplistic
Pointed to gross biological features
Argued biology often leads directly to crime
These types of biological theories
eventually abandoned/discredited:
Rigorously evaluated and found little
support
Major policy implications of these theories
Eugenics, breeding, and sterilization

18. The Positivist School of Criminology
Lombroso’s work helped lay the foundation for the “positivist school” of criminology
Argues crime is due to forces beyond the individual’s control
Biological, psychological, or social forces
Reliance on the “scientific method”
Now dominates the field

19. Scientific Method
The theories we develop must be tested against our observations of the world
Views the world in a systematic manner
HYPOTHESIS
FINDINGS EXPERIMENTS
DATA (RESULTS)

20. Recent Resurgence of Biological Theories
In recent years, biological theories have gained prominence in the field
However, they argue biology does NOT directly lead to crime
Rather, it increases the likelihood that individuals develop traits conducive to crime
Recognizes that biology is influenced by the social environment

21. Summary
Criminological thought was first dominated by demonic approaches focused on ridding the individual of evil spirits
Classical theories then focused on the rational human being and altering punishments to reduce crime
Finally, the positivist school focused on the biological, sociological, and psychological differences among criminals and noncriminals using the scientific method