1. NATURAL STONES

4. Stones are made up of minerals in various mixtures. Stones are made up of minerals in various mixtures. Individual samples vary greatly in composition. Individual samples vary greatly in composition. These variations greatly affect the strength, colour, texture, and durability of stone. These variations greatly affect the strength, colour, texture, and durability of stone.

5. MINERALS Elements which can be described in chemical terms or compounds composed of two or more elements and found naturally in the crust of the earth are termed minerals. Elements which can be described in chemical terms or compounds composed of two or more elements and found naturally in the crust of the earth are termed minerals. Nearly all of the rock - forming minerals are silicates, that is, they contain one or more metals in combination with silicon and oxygen. Nearly all of the rock - forming minerals are silicates, that is, they contain one or more metals in combination with silicon and oxygen. Some of the rock – forming minerals are quartz, calcite, gypsum, mica, feldspar, hornblende and augite. Some of the rock – forming minerals are quartz, calcite, gypsum, mica, feldspar, hornblende and augite.

6. Mineral Properties Hardness: Hardness: Field tests for hardness are based on the capability of a mineral to scratch anything softer than itself. A set of ten minerals with talc as number one (1) (the softest) and diomand as number ten (10) (the hardest) is referred to as Moh’s scale of hardness. Field tests for hardness are based on the capability of a mineral to scratch anything softer than itself. A set of ten minerals with talc as number one (1) (the softest) and diomand as number ten (10) (the hardest) is referred to as Moh’s scale of hardness. Specific Gravity: Specific Gravity: The relative weight of a mineral when compared with the weight of an equal volume of water is the specific gravity (G) of that mineral. For example, the specific gravity of gypsum is 2.3 (water as 1). The relative weight of a mineral when compared with the weight of an equal volume of water is the specific gravity (G) of that mineral. For example, the specific gravity of gypsum is 2.3 (water as 1).

13. CLASIFICATION OF STONES IGNEOUSSEDIMENTARYMETAMORPHIC GRANITESYENITEDIORITEGABBRORHYOLITESANDESITEBASALT CONGLOMERATE SANDSTONESHALEBRECCIALIMESTONETRAVERTINEMARBLE SLATE (Arduvaz) SCHIST (Yaprak Kayaç, şist) GNEISSQUARTZITE

14. THE ROCK CYCLE

15. IGNEOUS STONES Igneous Stones have been formed of material which has been molten by the intense heat within the interior of the earth and become solidified. Igneous Stones have been formed of material which has been molten by the intense heat within the interior of the earth and become solidified. They are divided into three group: They are divided into three group: Plutonic Rocks Hypabyssal Rocks Volcanic Rocks

16. A- Plutonic Rocks Plutonic Rocks are igneous rocks which have been consolidated at a considerable depth below the earth’s surface Plutonic Rocks are igneous rocks which have been consolidated at a considerable depth below the earth’s surface The erosion (wearing away) of the upper and softer strata has caused such rocks to appear at the earth’s surface. The erosion (wearing away) of the upper and softer strata has caused such rocks to appear at the earth’s surface. Consolidation was gradual owing to the extremely slow rate of cooling, and such rocks are therefore completely crystalline and have a coarse – grained texture. Consolidation was gradual owing to the extremely slow rate of cooling, and such rocks are therefore completely crystalline and have a coarse – grained texture.

17. These rocks consist of silica in combination with bases such as iron, lime, magnesia, potash and soda, and they are classed as acid, intermediate or basic, according to the percentage of silica content. These rocks consist of silica in combination with bases such as iron, lime, magnesia, potash and soda, and they are classed as acid, intermediate or basic, according to the percentage of silica content. Thus, acid rocks have over 66 per cent. of silica, intermediate rocks have from 52 to 66 per cent. of silica and the silica content of the basic group is less than 52 per cent. Thus, acid rocks have over 66 per cent. of silica, intermediate rocks have from 52 to 66 per cent. of silica and the silica content of the basic group is less than 52 per cent. The granites are included in the acid group of plutonic rocks, the syenites and diorites are of the intermediate group, and the gabbro family forms basic group. The granites are included in the acid group of plutonic rocks, the syenites and diorites are of the intermediate group, and the gabbro family forms basic group.

18. GRANITE Granite is the best known igneous stone. Granite is the best known igneous stone. It is usually light – coloured (especially light grey), formed mainly of potash, feldspar, quartz and mica, hornblende and augite are sometimes represented in addition to or in place of mica. It is usually light – coloured (especially light grey), formed mainly of potash, feldspar, quartz and mica, hornblende and augite are sometimes represented in addition to or in place of mica. Fine granite has a salt – and - pepper pattern, but feldspar may redden it. Fine granite has a salt – and - pepper pattern, but feldspar may redden it. The colour of a granite and its hardness and durability is determined by the composition of the feldspar in it. The colour of a granite and its hardness and durability is determined by the composition of the feldspar in it. Granites are extremely hard, durable and strong. Granites are extremely hard, durable and strong.

19. They take a good polish and are therefore easily kept clean when employed in polluted atmospheres. They take a good polish and are therefore easily kept clean when employed in polluted atmospheres. Owing to their great hardness, granites are difficult to work, and so they are expensive. Owing to their great hardness, granites are difficult to work, and so they are expensive. The rich coloured appearance of certain granites make them most suitable for decorative use. The rich coloured appearance of certain granites make them most suitable for decorative use. Colours include red, pink, yellow, green, blue, white, black and brown. Colours include red, pink, yellow, green, blue, white, black and brown. Granite has a wide variety of uses in building, including flooring, interior and exterior wall facing, column, stair treads, etc. Granite has a wide variety of uses in building, including flooring, interior and exterior wall facing, column, stair treads, etc.

20. SYENITE Syenite has a mottled appearance, with dark green markings and light-coloured patches. Syenite has a mottled appearance, with dark green markings and light-coloured patches. It is hard, durable, strong and more easily worked than granite. It is hard, durable, strong and more easily worked than granite. Quartz is usually absent, feldspar is the prevalent mineral, hornblende is present, and the mica content is usually less than in granite. Quartz is usually absent, feldspar is the prevalent mineral, hornblende is present, and the mica content is usually less than in granite.

21. DIORITE Diorite is difficult to work, and this in addition to its dull green or black colour, renders it unsuitable for building purposes. Diorite is difficult to work, and this in addition to its dull green or black colour, renders it unsuitable for building purposes. It is sometimes known as green stone and is used as road metal. It is sometimes known as green stone and is used as road metal. Feldspar, hornblende, augite and dark mica are present and quartz is usually absent. Feldspar, hornblende, augite and dark mica are present and quartz is usually absent.

22. GABBRO Gabbro is rarely used for building purposes on account of its bad weathering qualities and its dull appearance. Gabbro is rarely used for building purposes on account of its bad weathering qualities and its dull appearance. Feldspar, hornblende, augite are the chief minerals of gabbro. Feldspar, hornblende, augite are the chief minerals of gabbro.

23. B- Hypabyssal rocks: These were masses of molten material which penetrated the overlying strata, and erosion of the latter has exposed these rocks at the surface. These were masses of molten material which penetrated the overlying strata, and erosion of the latter has exposed these rocks at the surface. Cooling of the masses was more rapid than with the plutonic rocks, and their texture is therefore finer. (For example: Quartz Porphyries) Cooling of the masses was more rapid than with the plutonic rocks, and their texture is therefore finer. (For example: Quartz Porphyries)

24. C- Volcanic rocks Volcanic rocks have been formed from lava poured out at the surface of the volcanoes. Volcanic rocks have been formed from lava poured out at the surface of the volcanoes. Rapid cooling and hardening caused the material to be fine grained and of glassy character. Rapid cooling and hardening caused the material to be fine grained and of glassy character. Their group classification are rhyolites (acid), trachytes and andesites (intermediate) and basalt (basic). Their group classification are rhyolites (acid), trachytes and andesites (intermediate) and basalt (basic).

25. SEDIMENTARY STONES Most of these rocks are formed of fragments of igneous rocks which have been deposited by water in layers. Most of these rocks are formed of fragments of igneous rocks which have been deposited by water in layers. As successive layers were formed, these sediments became hardened and consolidated by great pressure and were cemented together by sandy or clayey paste or by a chemical substance (such as carbonate of lime) conveyed by the percolating water. As successive layers were formed, these sediments became hardened and consolidated by great pressure and were cemented together by sandy or clayey paste or by a chemical substance (such as carbonate of lime) conveyed by the percolating water. Other rocks of this division are formed from the remains of marine organisms (shellfish, etc.) and chemically by precipitation. Other rocks of this division are formed from the remains of marine organisms (shellfish, etc.) and chemically by precipitation.

26. Sedimentary stones are chiefly employed for building purposes. Sedimentary stones are chiefly employed for building purposes. The principal sedimentary rocks are sandstones and limestones. The principal sedimentary rocks are sandstones and limestones.

27. SANDSTONE Sandstones consist of grains of quartz held together by a cement. Sandstones consist of grains of quartz held together by a cement. In addition to quartz, sandstones may contain such minerals as mica, feldspar, hornblende and oxides of iron, resulting in considerable variation in colour and texture. In addition to quartz, sandstones may contain such minerals as mica, feldspar, hornblende and oxides of iron, resulting in considerable variation in colour and texture. The hardness and durability of the particular sandstone depends on the type of cement. The hardness and durability of the particular sandstone depends on the type of cement. The principle cements are siliceous and calcareous. The principle cements are siliceous and calcareous. Sandstones are classified according to the nature of the binding material, thus, siliceous sandstones and calcareous sandstones. Sandstones are classified according to the nature of the binding material, thus, siliceous sandstones and calcareous sandstones.

28. Siliceous Sandstones The grains of these stones are held together by siliceous cement. The grains of these stones are held together by siliceous cement. Such sandstones are exceedingly durable, as the silica has good cementing properties and is not attacked by acids in the atmosphere. Such sandstones are exceedingly durable, as the silica has good cementing properties and is not attacked by acids in the atmosphere. They are very hard and are usually difficult to work. They are very hard and are usually difficult to work.

29. Calcareous sandstones The grains are bound together by calcareous cement, which is composed of calcite (crystals of carbonate of lime). The grains are bound together by calcareous cement, which is composed of calcite (crystals of carbonate of lime). Calcite has good binding qualities but it is not durable if exposed to polluted atmospheres owing to the acids attacking the matrix and loosening the grains of sand which gradually become removed by the weather. Calcite has good binding qualities but it is not durable if exposed to polluted atmospheres owing to the acids attacking the matrix and loosening the grains of sand which gradually become removed by the weather. These stones are easily worked. These stones are easily worked. Colours are available in such varieties as blue, brown, yellow, and many mixed varieties. Colours are available in such varieties as blue, brown, yellow, and many mixed varieties.

30. LIMESTONE Limestones are composed mainly of two basic ingredients: Limestones are composed mainly of two basic ingredients: - calcium carbonate and - magnesium carbonate with silica, aluminium oxide and iron oxide, together with other elements in lesser amounts, present in most limestones. Limestone is one of the most commonly used building stones. Limestone is one of the most commonly used building stones. Limestone varies widely in colour and texture. Limestone varies widely in colour and texture. There are mainly three types of limestone: There are mainly three types of limestone:

31. There are mainly three types of limestone: Oolitic limestone is a calcite cemented calcareous stone formed of shells and shell fragments, particularly non - crystalline in nature. Oolitic limestone is a calcite cemented calcareous stone formed of shells and shell fragments, particularly non - crystalline in nature. Dolomitic limestone is rich in magnesium carbonate and frequently somewhat crystalline in character. It usually has greater compressive and tensile strength than oolitic limestones, with greater variety of texture. Dolomitic limestone is rich in magnesium carbonate and frequently somewhat crystalline in character. It usually has greater compressive and tensile strength than oolitic limestones, with greater variety of texture. Crystalline limestone is predominantly composed of calcium carbonate crystals. It has high compressive and tensile strength, is very low in absorption and has a smooth texture. The colour is fairly uniform light grey. Crystalline limestone is predominantly composed of calcium carbonate crystals. It has high compressive and tensile strength, is very low in absorption and has a smooth texture. The colour is fairly uniform light grey.

32. TRAVERTINE Travertine is composed mainly of calcium carbonate. Travertine is composed mainly of calcium carbonate. It has been formed at the earth’s surface through the evaporation of water from hot springs. It has been formed at the earth’s surface through the evaporation of water from hot springs. It is used as an interior decorative stone because of its pleasing texture. It is used as an interior decorative stone because of its pleasing texture. Colours include white, grey, to creamy buff (devetüyü, sarımsı kahverengi). Colours include white, grey, to creamy buff (devetüyü, sarımsı kahverengi). Travertine is produced primarily as ashlar veneer, rubble and rustic cut stone. Travertine is produced primarily as ashlar veneer, rubble and rustic cut stone.

33. METAMORPHIC STONES These are either igneous or sedimentary rocks which have been altered or metamorphosed by heat (from the earth’s interior) or pressure (caused by the weight of superimposed layers of material or to the movement of the earth’s crust) or a combination of both. These are either igneous or sedimentary rocks which have been altered or metamorphosed by heat (from the earth’s interior) or pressure (caused by the weight of superimposed layers of material or to the movement of the earth’s crust) or a combination of both. As a result of this metamorphism, the original structure of the rocks has been destroyed, the arrangement of the particles being changed. As a result of this metamorphism, the original structure of the rocks has been destroyed, the arrangement of the particles being changed. The chief metamorphic rocks used for building purposes are marbles, slates, schist, gneiss and quartzite. The chief metamorphic rocks used for building purposes are marbles, slates, schist, gneiss and quartzite.

34. MARBLE Marble is re-crystallised limestone. Marble is re-crystallised limestone. It may be white, yellow, brown, green, grey, red, pink, or black. The great range of colours is due to the presence of various oxides of iron, silica, and mica. It may be white, yellow, brown, green, grey, red, pink, or black. The great range of colours is due to the presence of various oxides of iron, silica, and mica. Certain varieties of marble deteriorate quite readily when exposed to the weather and are suitable only for interior work. Certain varieties of marble deteriorate quite readily when exposed to the weather and are suitable only for interior work. Marble is used mainly for wall or column facing and for flooring. Marble is used mainly for wall or column facing and for flooring. It is softer and less resistant to weathering than granite. It is softer and less resistant to weathering than granite.

35. SLATE Slate is formed by the metamorphosis of clays and shales which have been deposited in layers. Slate is formed by the metamorphosis of clays and shales which have been deposited in layers. A unique characteristic of the material is that it may be separated into thin, tough sheets called slates. A unique characteristic of the material is that it may be separated into thin, tough sheets called slates. The basic ingredients include silicon dioxide (45 to 56 percent), aluminium oxide (16 to 25 percent), iron oxide (5 to 8 percent), potassium oxide (3 to 6,5 percent), magnesium oxide (2 to 4 percent), with smaller amounts of titanium, calcium, and sulfur. The basic ingredients include silicon dioxide (45 to 56 percent), aluminium oxide (16 to 25 percent), iron oxide (5 to 8 percent), potassium oxide (3 to 6,5 percent), magnesium oxide (2 to 4 percent), with smaller amounts of titanium, calcium, and sulfur. Slate is frequently a blue-grey colour but may be green, red or brown. It may be used into sheets used for roofing or flagstones. Slate is frequently a blue-grey colour but may be green, red or brown. It may be used into sheets used for roofing or flagstones.

36. QUARTZITE Quartzite is a type of stone which is sometimes confused with granite but is quite different in composition; it is a stone which is harder than some granites. Quartzite is a type of stone which is sometimes confused with granite but is quite different in composition; it is a stone which is harder than some granites. It is made of grains of quartz sand cemented together with silica and is usually distinguishable by its coarse, crystalline appearance. It is made of grains of quartz sand cemented together with silica and is usually distinguishable by its coarse, crystalline appearance. Because of its coarse appearance, quartzite is often used where a rustic effect is required. Because of its coarse appearance, quartzite is often used where a rustic effect is required. Colours include ivory, tan, red, grey, brown and buff. Characteristically, each stone contains several colours. Colours include ivory, tan, red, grey, brown and buff. Characteristically, each stone contains several colours.

37. PROPERTIES OF STONES TYPES OF STONE WEIGHT (kg/m3) COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH (MPa) WATER ABSORPTION (Percent by weight) GRANITE 2643 - 3204 139 - 309 0.002 – 0.2 SANDSTONE 2242 - 2643 31 - 108 1.5 – 6 LIMESTONE 2000 - 2880 19 - 193 0.25 – 7.5 MARBLE 2963 - 3043 93 - 162 0.001 – 0.06 SLATE 2800 - 2880 124 - 185 0.15 – 0.25

38. GRADES OF STONE Stone is generally graded into four groups for construction purposes. They are: Stone is generally graded into four groups for construction purposes. They are:STATUARY,SELECT, STANDARD and RUSTIC in descending order of quality. Fineness of grain or texture is the basis for this classification. Fineness of grain or texture is the basis for this classification.

39. TYPES AND FORMS OF SOME STONES THAT ARE FREQUENTLY USED IN ARCHITECTURAL APPLICATIONS TYPES OF STONE AREAS OF USE AVAILABLE SIZES THICKNESSWIDTHLENGTH SLATE (FROM QUARRY) Paving 30 – 100 mm FreeFree Floor covering 30 – 50 mm FreeFree Wall covering 30 – 50 mm FreeFree Roof covering 4 – 10 mm Ranges between 150 – 350 mm Ranges between 250 – 600 mm TRAVERTINE AND MARBLES Paving 20 – 30 mm Free & 300 mm fixed Free Floor covering 20 – 30 mm Free & 300 mm fixed Wall covering 20 mm Free & 300 mm fixed Stairs Risers: 20 mm Steps: 30 mm Free & 300 mm fixed Roof covering Not applicable

40. Stones that are to be used to build rubble walls come from quarry. Stones that are to be used to build rubble walls come from quarry. But those stones to be used to built ashlar wall must be cut into exact sizes at the specialised workshops. But those stones to be used to built ashlar wall must be cut into exact sizes at the specialised workshops. Those sedimentary stones that are used mostly as veneers of different types of walls and those that are frequently used to build fine places are available in fixed thickness and widths. Those sedimentary stones that are used mostly as veneers of different types of walls and those that are frequently used to build fine places are available in fixed thickness and widths. Their length is usually free (i.e. in different lengths ranging from 1.00 m to 1.50 m Their length is usually free (i.e. in different lengths ranging from 1.00 m to 1.50 m

41. PROCESSING OF MARBLE Quarried marble are first transported in bulky sizes to marble plants. Quarried marble are first transported in bulky sizes to marble plants. Here there by the help of big cranes cut into thin layers and exact sizes depending on the way that the company markets its product. Here there by the help of big cranes cut into thin layers and exact sizes depending on the way that the company markets its product. There are many ways in which the marble products may be marketed: There are many ways in which the marble products may be marketed: 1- thickness and width of pieces are fixed, the length is free 2- limited thickness of 1 cm, width and length fixed by 30 x 30 cm and marketed in boxes, each for 1 sqm. 3- Marble, reinforced with fiberglass backing, with sizes of 6 mm in thickness, 30.5 x 61 or 60.5 x 60.5 etc.

42. BUILDING STONE REQUIREMENTS Despite the abundance of rock, relatively few stones satisfy the requirements as building stones. Despite the abundance of rock, relatively few stones satisfy the requirements as building stones. The important requirements are: The important requirements are: 1) strength, 2) hardness, 3) workability, 4) durability, 5) colour and grain, 6) porosity and texture, 7) ease of quarrying, and 8) accessibility.