1. PIE CHANGES

2. T HE I NDO -E UROPEAN LANGUAGE FAMILY the unattested and & partly reconstructed language A set of common features shared by most or all of its dialects/subdivisions considered to have vanished around 2000 BC = no written records. Details: especially the sound pattern =remain the subject of debate, New theories of time and place of the original Indo- Europeans = still proposed. the era of PIE - 3000 BC to until shortly after 2000 BC (archeological and linguistic evidence). the break-up of the community of original speakers of PIE can be dated from the earliest records in Indo- European languages.

3. IE LANGUAGES

4. The IE languages the language family/ family of families, of which English is a member + other European languages, such as French, German, Russian, Spanish, etc. Asian languages: Bengali, Hindi, and Persian Classical languages – e.g., Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit the most extensively spoken group of languages worldwide Similarities among certain languages of Europe Asia resulted from a common origin had attracted scholars for several centuries the British scholar Sir William Jones (1786) = Sanskrit, Latin, and Greek share features derived from ‘some common source, which, perhaps, no longer exists’. Germanic languages also have the same source.

5. T HE PROTO-G ERMANIC an unrecorded PIE offshoot (aka Primitive Germanic) up to the early Christian era = probably 1 language (only minor dialectal differences) groups migrate into various parts of Europe, dialectal differences develop rapidly PGMC branches off around 100 BC. PGMC - no records before its subdivision into eastern, western, and northern groups the earliest records: runic inscriptions = (3c/4c) = Scandinavian written texts = Gothic (4-5c).

6. THE GERMANIC FAMILY

7. English, Dutch, Frisian, German, the Scandinavian languages (Danish, Faeroese, Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish) + a number of derived languages (Yiddish << German, Afrikaans << Dutch) + the extinct Burgundian, Gothic, Norn, and Vandalic. B RANCHES OF G ERMANIC : (1) East Germanic: extinct Gothic (till 16c) (2) North Germanic: the modern & ancient Scandinavian languages (3) West Germanic: English, German, Dutch, Flemish, Frisian (+ the languages from which they have developed)

8. METHODS OF HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS the PHILOLOGICAL METHOD : compares the same text written in different periods of language history the INTERNAL RECONSTRUCTION METHOD : looks at synchronic variation as a remnant of some older regular form the COMPARATIVE METHOD : groups words with related form and meaning to reconstruct their proto-forms

9. PIE TO OE – STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Proto-Indo-European, c. 3000-2000 BC Proto-Germanic = Primitive Germanic up to 100 BC (up to 500 BC it was phonetically uniform) (North-)West Germanic, c. 100 BC up to c. 300 AD Anglo-Frisian, the period of Anglo-Frisian linguistic unity, c. 300-450 Primitive Old English = Pre-Old English/ Prehistoric Old English, c. 450-700 Early Old English, c. 700-900 Late Old English, c. 900-1100

10. THE PIE SOUND SYSTEM C ONSONANTS : voiceless plosives /p t k k w */ short vowels /i e o u a/ voiced unaspirated plosives/b d ɡ ɡ w */ long vowels /i ː e ː o ː u ː a ː / voiced aspirated plosives/b h d h ɡ h ɡ wh */ diphthongs /ei eu oi ou ai au/ fricatives /s/ resonants nasals/m n/(could function either as consonants or as vowels) liquids/r l/ semivowels/w j/(* labio-velar stops)

11. PIE >> PGMC – CONSONANTAL CHANGES CENTUM & S ATEM LANGUAGES several families (related by common descendant from one / other early offshoot) - classified as SATEM and CENTUM languages - = the development of the IE word for ‘hundred’ with /k/ as in Latin centum or /s/ as in Sanskrit satem. C ENTUM : S ATEM : Latincentum Sanskrit šatá Gothi hund Polish sto Irishcēt Lithuanian šimtas the SATEM language families: Indo-Iranian, Thraco-Phrygian, Illyrian, Balto-Slavonic the CENTUM language families: Celtic, Germanic, Hellenic, Italic

12. GRIMM’S LAW – 1ST GERMANIC SHIFT T HE F IRST G ERMANIC C ONSONANT S HIFT – a statement of a relationship between certain consonants in Germanic languages and their originals in PIE (1818 - the Danish philologist R ASMUS R ASK ) Set out in detail in 1822 by the German philologist J ACOB G RIMM. PIE voiceless plosives >> Germanic voiceless fricatives: PIE /p t k k w / > / ɸ θ x x w / > PGmc /f þ x xw/, e.g. Lat. pedis Eng. foot Lat. tresEng. three Lat. canisEng. Hound PGmc /þ/ > OE /θ/ PGmc /x/ > OE /h/ [h, x] PGmc /xw/ > EOE /hw/, /h/ PIE voiced unaspirated plosives >> Germanic voiceless plosives: PIE /b d ɡ ɡ w / > PGmc /p t k kw/, e.g. Lat. turbaOE þorp Lat. dentisEng. tooth Lat. granumEng. Corn PGmc /kw/ > EOE /kw/, /k/ PIE voiced aspirated plosives became Germanic voiced unaspirated plosives: PIE /b h d h ɡ h ɡ wh / > /β ð ɣ ɣ w / > PGmc /b d ɡ ɡ w/, e.g. Lat. hostis*Eng. guest *IE voiced aspirates changed to fricatives in Latin PGmc / ɡ / > OE / ɡ / [ ɡ, ɣ ] PGmc / ɡ w/ > EOE / ɡ /, /w/

13. GRIMM’S LAW - EXCEPTIONS G’sL do not operate when the plosive is preceded by another voiceless stop / /s/, e.g.: PIE */kapt-/ > OE hæft ‘captive’ Lat. captus PIE */nokt-/ > OE neaht ‘night’Lat. nox PIE */ ɡ h ostis/ > OE giest ‘guest’Lat. hostis PIE */med h u/ > OE meodu ‘mead’ Pol. miód Skt. mádhu PIE */tr-n-/ > OE þorn ‘thorn’ Pol. cierń Skt. tŕna- PIE */b h ra ː tor/> OE brōþor ‘brother’Pol. brat Skt. bhrātr

14. VERNER’S LAW = GRAMMATICAL SOUND CHANGE The evolution of certain consonants in Germanic languages already affected by Grimm’s Law 1875 - the Danish philologist K ARL V ERNER It explains a set of apparent exceptions to Grimm’s Law PGmc voiceless fricatives are voiced when the immediately preceding vowel does not carry the main word stress and had no adjacent voiceless consonants V ERNER ’ S L AW holds that PIE voiceless fricatives >> Germanic voiced fricatives: / ɸ θ s x x w / > /β ð z ɣ ɣ w /, e.g. PIE */p ə tér/ > PGmc */f ə θér/ > PGmc */f ə ðer/ > OE fæder > PDE father consonants that change in accordance with V ERNER ’ S L AW undergo further changes: original /s/ >> /z/ >> /r/ = RHOTACISM F IRST C ONSONANT S HIFT = G RIMM ’ S L AW + V ERNER ’ S L AW, E. G. voiced aspirated plosives became voiced fricatives: /b h d h ɡ h ɡ wh / > /β ð ɣ ɣ w / voiceless plosives became voiceless fricatives: /p t k k w / > / ɸ θ x x w //f þ x xw/ S ECOND C ONSONANT S HIFT = German, e.g. Eng. penny – Ger. Pfennig Eng. copper – Ger. Kupfer Eng. dead – Ger. tot

15. PIE TO PGMC – VOCALIC CHANGES the so-called ɑ ~ o merger it reduced the number of long and short vowels to 4 each the vowels / ɑ / & /o/ have a long history of instability in Germanic languages: ɑ ~ o merger: 2 processes in operation working in opposite directions: /a ː / > /o ː /, e.g. PIE */b h ra ː tor/> PGmc */bro ː þor/>OE brōþor /o/ > /a/, e.g. PIE */okto ː u/>PGmc */ahta/>OE eahta

16. PIE >> PGMC - STRESS PIE stress = free (free pitch) PGMC stress = fixed on the basis of loudness

17. PIE >> PGMCE – CASE SYSTEM nominative genitive dative ablative locative accusative instrumental vocative

18. PIE – GENDER originally 2 genders: animate: masculine feminine inanimate: neuter

19. PERSON first (speaker) second (addressee) third (anything else)

20. PIE – NUMBER & MOOD N UMBER singular dual plural M OOD indicative subjunctive optative injunctive imperative

21. PIE – VOICE/ASPECT/TENSE V OICE active middle passive A SPECT present T ENSE future imperfect perfect past (= preterit) aorist pluperfect

22. PIE VERBAL SYSTEM >> PGMC P IE C LASSES OF strong verbs: - 7 classes? = number of classes uncertain P GMC VERBS : - STRONG VERBS - weak verbs = Germanic innovation

23. THE MOST IMPORTANT CHANGES FROM PIE TO PGMC Grimm’s Law & Verner’s Law fixed word stress on the root syllable weak verbs with past tense in [t] or [d] (dental preterite) two-tense verbal system strong and weak adjectival declensions