1. SOCIOLOGICAL THEORIES
CHAPTER 3

2. Sociological Theory
Understanding complex phenomena (the impact of industrialization on societies, how does racism interact with capitalism, how do crime rates vary with poverty…)
Factual research shows how things occur but sociology does not just consist of collecting facts.
Why things happen?

3. Explanatory theories Industrialization
What are the origins of and preconditions for industrialization?
Differences between societies industrialization processes.
Why is industrialization associated with changes in forms of criminal punishment or in family structures and marriage systems?

4. Theories involve constructing abstract interpretations that can be used to explain a wide variety of empirical/factual situations.
A theory of industrialization is concerned with identifying the main features that processes of industrial development share in common and shows which are of importance in explaining industrial development.

5. We can only develop valid theoretical explanations if we can test them by means of factual research.
However, facts do not speak for themselves! Unless they are guided by some knowledge of theory, they are unable to explain the complexity of societies.

6. Theoretical thinking must respond to general problems posed by the study of human social life (including issues that are philosophical in nature).

7. Founders of Sociology
Systematic study of society – late 1700s and early 1800s.
Enlightenment
French Revolution
Industrial Revolution in Europe
What is human nature?
Why is the society structured the way it is?
How and why do societies change?

8. Which events made sociological perspective possible?
The Industrial Revolution
Radically transformed material conditons of life and ways of making living.
New social problems such as urban overcrowding, poor sanitation and accompanying diseases, industrial pollution.

9. French Revolution
Marked symbolic endpoint of the older European agrarian regimes and absolute monarchies.
Republican ideals of freedom, liberty and citizenship rights came to the fore.
Can be regarded as partly being the outcome of European Enlightenment ideas.

10. Enlightenment (Age of Reason)
Challenged religious and traditional authorities
Promoted philosophical and scientific notions of reason, rationality and critical thinking as the key to progress in human affairs.
Saw the advancement of reliable knowledge in the natural sciences, and as showing the way for the study of social life.

11. Auguste Comte ( )
Invented the term “sociology”. First had “social physics” in mind but it was taken.
A science of society that could explain the laws of the social world just as natural science explained functioning of the physical world.
Uncovering the laws that govern human society could help shape our destiny and improve the welfare of humanity.

12. Sociology as a positive science.
Positivism: science should be concerned with observable entities that are known directly to experience.
On the basis of careful observation, one can infer laws that explain the relationship between the observed phenomena.
By understanding causal relationships between events, scientists can predict future events.

13. Comte’s Law of Three Stages
Human efforts to understand the world have gone through three stages:
Theological (religious ideas and the belief that society was an expression of God’s will)
Metaphysical (Renaissance, society came to be known in natural not supernatural terms)
Positive (application of scientific techniques to the social world)

14. Reconstruction of the society
Religion of humanity that would abandon faith and dogma in favor of a scientific grounding (with sociology at the heart of this new religion).
Inequalities produced by industrialization and the threat they posed to social cohesion.
Solution? Production of a new moral consensus that would regulate/hold together the society, despite new patterns of inequality.

15. Canonical Sociology
Marx (dynamics of the capitalist economy and causes of social inequality)
Durkheim (character of industrial society and the process of secularization)
Weber (emergence of capitalism and the consequences of modern bureaucratic forms of organization)
What is common in their concerns?

16. They were all concerned to understand what was unique about modern societies and where they were heading.
Good theories help us arrive at a deeper understanding of societies and to explain the social changes that affect us all.

17. Classical (Canonical) Sociologists
Karl Marx ( )
Emile Durkheim ( )
Max Weber ( )
Why is classical sociology classical? (R.W. Connell)
Who are left out and why?

18. “Why Is Classical Theory Classical?”
(1) Sociology arose out of the concerns and observations of European colonial empires, which led to the concepts of progress, evolution, and the primitive/modern contrast.
(2) For all the evils of this beginning, early sociology had at least a central concern for gender and race, later forgotten. Gender, sexuality, and race relations, which were core issues for evolutionary sociology, were pushed to the margins in the process of canon formation.
(3) These concerns broke down because of World War I, with the shift of sociology’s center to the United States and to concerns for inequality and disorder in urban society.
(4) Because this empirical work failed to legitimate itself, a classical canon was adopted.

19. Harriet Martineau ( )
Today credited with introducing sociology to Britain through her translation of Comte’s Positive Philosophy.
Systematic study of the American Society during extensive travels throughout the US, Society in America (1837).

20. When one studies a society, one must focus on all key aspects (political, religious and social institutions).
An analysis of a society must include an understanding of women’s lives.

21. Sociological study of previously ignored issues such as marriage, children, domestic and religious life and race relations.
“The nursery, the boudoir and the kitchen are all excellent schools in which to learn the morals and manners of a people.”

22. Sociologists should do more than just observe, they should also act in ways to benefit a society.
Proponent of women’s rights and emancipation of slaves.

23. Ibn Khaldun ( )
Historical, sociological and political economic studies.
Muqaddimah (Introduction, 1378)

24. Muqaddimah (Introduction, 1378)
Criticized existing historical approaches and methods as dealing only with description.
Claimed instead the discovery of a “new science of social organization” or “science of society” capable of getting at the underlying meaning of events.

25. Devised a theory of social conflict based on understanding the central characteristics of nomadic and sedentary societies of his time.
Central to his theory was asabiyyah (group feeling/solidarity).

26. Attempted to explain the rise and decline of Maghribian and Arab states. Hence, studies the process of state formation.
Nomadic Bedouin tribes – strong group feeling
Sedentary town-dweller weak group feeling (internal solidarity)

27. Emile Durkheim (1858 – 1917)
Saw sociology as a new science that can elucidate traditional philosophical questions by examining them in an empirical manner.
Must study social life with same objectivity as natural sciences (Comte).

28. “Study social facts as things”
Social life could be analyzed as rigorously as objects or events in the nature.
Durkheim’s themes
Sociology as an empirical science
The rise of the individual and formation of a new social order
The sources and character of moral authority in society

29. Sociology is the study of social facts.
Rather than applying sociological methods to the study of individuals, sociology should examine social facts that shape our actions as individuals (such as the state of the economy or the influence of religion)

30. There is more to society than the actions and interests of its individual members.
Social institutions and social forms (ie. social movements, family) outlive the individuals who inhabit them and have a reality of their own.
The “social” is a level of reality in its own right and cannot be reduced to mere action nor to aggregate of individual consciousnesses.
Society is more than the sum of its parts!

31. Social Facts
Ways of acting, thinking, feeling that are external to individuals and have their own reality outside the lives and perceptions of individual people.
They exercise a coercive power over individuals (though not recognized as coercive, people generally comply with social facts freely, as if they are acting out of choice).

32. People follow patterns that are general to their society.
What if they don’t?
How do social facts constrain human action?
Outright punishment (crime)
Social rejection (unacceptable behavior)
Misunderstanding (misuse of language)

33. How can one study social facts?
Hard to observe directly;
their properties must be revealed indirectly by
analyzing their effects
considering attempts made at their expression (laws, religious texts, written rules)
abandon prejudice and ideology (a mind free of preconceived ideas and open to evidence.

34. Changes transforming society Social morality and solidarity
What holds the society together and keeps it from descending into chaos
How individuals successfully integrate into social groups
How individuals are regulated by a set of shared values and customs

35. Division of Labor in Society
An analysis of social change
The advent of industrial era meant the emergence of a new type of solidarity
Mechanical solidarity
Organic solidarity

36. Mechanical Solidarity
Traditional cultures with a low division of labor
Many members involved in similar occupations
Bound by common experience and shared beliefs
Strength of shared belief is repressive (community punishes those who challenge conventional ways of life)
Grounded in consensus and similarity of belief.

37. Organic Solidarity
Industrialization and urbanizationlead to a growing division of labor (breakdown of former form of solidarity) in advanced societies
Specialization of tasks
Increasing social differentiation
Held together by economic interdependence
Recognition of the importance of others’ contributions
Economic reciprocity and mutual dependency replace shared beliefs in creating social consensus.

38. Anomie Rapid social change gives rise to social difficulties
Disruptive effects on traditional lifestyles, morals, religious beliefs and everyday patterns
Absence of new clear values
These unsettling conditions lead to anomie ( feelings of aimlessness, dread and despair provoked by modern social life)
Lack of meaning in the absence of traditional moral controls and standards (religion) due to modern social development

39. Suicide: A Study in Sociology (1897)
A calculated and provocative decision with two main purposes:
Establish sociology as a recognized social science
Suicide, an act explained by individual psychology, is actually a social fact.
First ever Professor of Sociology in an academic establishment (Sorbonne, The University of Paris, 1913)
Show social dangers of unbridled individualism
Does not deny that psychological distress prompts taking of own life, however, social conditions provide the suicidal disposition.

40. Even though individuals see themselves as exercising free will and choice, their behaviors are socially patterned and shaped.
Even a highly personal act like suicide is influenced by what happens in the social world.
First sociological analysis, previous explanations resorted to race, climate or mental disorder to explain likelihood of suicide.

41. Suicide is a social fact that can be explained by other social facts.
Suicide rate is more than aggregate of individual suicides – a phenomenon with patterned properties.
Certain categories of people are more likely to commit suicide.
Men – women
Protestant – Catholic
Single – married
Wealthy - poor

42. Lower suicide rates during times of war.
Higher rates during times of economic change or instability.
There are social forces external to the individual that affect suicide rates.
Social solidarity
Social integration
Social regulation

43. People who are strongly integrated into the social groups, and whose desires and aspirations are regulated by social norms are less likely to commit suicide.
Suicide types according to the presence or absence of integration and regulation:
Egoistic
Anomic
Altruistic
Fatalistic

44. Egoistic Suicide low integration in society individual is isolated
ties to a group are weakened or broken
Religion
Marriage
Wartime

45. Anomic Suicide Lack of social regulation
People rendered normless as a result of rapid change or instability
Lack of a reference point for norms and desires
Loss of balance between people’s circumstances and their desires.
Economic upheaval
Divorce

46. Altruistic Suicide Individual is over-integrated
Social bonds too strong
Society valued more than self
Mechanical solidarity prevails
Kamikaze pilots
Suicide bombers

47. Fatalistic Suicide Little contemporary relevance
Individual over-regulated by society
Oppression results in feeling of powerlessness before society or fate
Dictatorships

48. Suicide rates vary between societies but show regular patterns within societies over time.
Durkheim took this as evidence that there are consistent social forces that influence suicide rates.
 An examination of suicide rates reveals how general social patterns can be detected within individual actions.

49. Critical points Uncritical use of official statistics
Dismissal of non-social influences
Classifying all types of suicide together