1. 7—1 C H A P T E R 7 Work Motivation Jon L. Pierce & Donald G. Gardner with Randall B. Dunham Management Organizational Behavior PowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook An Integrated Perspective Copyright © 2002 by South-Western

2. 7—2 Learning Objectives 1.Define motivation and distinguish direction and intensity of motivation. 2.Describe a content theory of motivation. 3.Compare and contrast the main content theories of motivation: manifest needs theory, learned needs theory, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, Alderfer’s ERG theory, Herzberg’s motivator-hygiene theory, and self- determination theory. 4.Distinguish extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and describe their relationship. 5.Distinguish content and process theories of motivation.

3. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—3 Learning Objectives (cont’d) 6.Compare and contrast the main process theories of motivation: operant conditioning theory, equity theory, goal theory, and expectancy theory. 7.Describe and distinguish the concepts of reinforcement, punishment, negative reinforcement, and extinction. 8.Describe how to use the equity and goal-setting motivation theories. 9.Discuss the main concepts and managerial implications of expectancy theory.

4. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—4 Major Determinants of Performance Person:  Ability—the knowledge, skills, and receptiveness to learning that a person brings to a task or job.  Knowledge is what a person knows.  Skill is the capacity to perform an activity.  Receptiveness to learning is how quickly a person acquires new knowledge.  Accurate role perceptions—how well individuals understand the behaviors they are expected to perform as members of the organization.  The expected goals (outcomes) to be achieved.  How to go about achieving the goals.

5. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—5 Major Determinants of Performance Person (cont’d):  Motivation—an internal state that energizes, directs, and sustains behavior; it is a consequence of:  The desire to fulfill unmet needs.  The desire to resolve cognitive dissonance (conflicting thoughts that produce anxiety).  Work Motivation—the amount of effort a person will exert to achieve a certain level of job performance. Situation:  Performance environment—factors that impact employees’ performance but are essentially out of their control.

6. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—6 Determinants of Performance Person: Ability Motivation Accurate Role Perceptions Situation: Environmental (Constraints and Facilitators) Performance FIGURE 7–1

7. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—7 Motivation: Direction and Intensity Direction  What (i.e., the target or goal) a person wants to achieve.  Clarifying direction results in accurate role perceptions.  Differences in employee direction and organizational direction create conflicts between employees and the organization. Intensity  The degree to which people try (make the effort) to achieve their targets.  Lack of intensity results in employees who perform poorly in attaining personal or organizational goals.

8. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—8 Theories of Motivation Content motivation theories  Theories that focus on the content of what factors (needs) motivate people. Process motivation theories  Theories that address how and why people become motivated.

9. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—9 Needs Need  A human condition that becomes energized when people feel deficient in some respect.  Needs provide direction for motivation:  When a need is energized, people are motivated to satisfy it; once satisfied, the need no longer motivates. Hedonism  Early motivation theory that assumes people are motivated to satisfy mainly their own needs (seek pleasure, avoid pain).

10. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—10 Content Theories of Motivation Manifest Needs Theory (Murray) Learned Needs Theory (McClelland) Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow) ERG Theory (Alderfer) Motivator-Hygiene Theory (Herzberg) Self-Determination Theory (SDT)

11. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—11 Content Theories of Motivation Manifest Needs Theory (Murray)  The theory assumes that behavior is driven by the desire to satisfy manifest (most current) needs.  Latent needs—needs which an individual may have but are not evident in their current behaviors.  Primary (instinctive) needs—physiological needs.  Secondary (learned) needs—psychological needs.

12. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—12 Content Theories of Motivation Learned Needs Theory (McClelland)  The theory assumes that people’s behavior in organizations is based on three principal needs:  Need for Achievement (nAch)—the need to excel at the tasks they are performing.  Need for Affiliation (nAff)—the need to establish and maintain warm and friendly relationships with other people.  Need for power (nPow)—the need to control things, especially other people; reflects a motivation to influence and be responsible for other people.

13. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—13 Content Theories of Motivation Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)  The theory assumes that a higher order need is not manifest and cannot remain manifest unless lower order needs are satisfied.  Physiological needs—air, water, food, sex, and sleep.  Safety and security needs—freedom from danger.  Social needs—receive love and affection from others.  Ego and esteem needs—to be respected by others.  Self-actualization—the need for self-fulfillment.

14. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—14 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Ego and Esteem Self Actualization Social Safety and Security Physiological and Survival FIGURE 7–2 Source: Based on A. H. Maslow. 1943. A theory of human motivation. Psychological Bulletin 50:370–396.

15. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—15 Content Theories of Motivation Alderfer’s ERG Theory  The theory compresses Maslow’s five need categories into three: e xistence needs, relatedness needs, growth needs.  Four components of motivation  Satisfaction progression—moving to higher-order needs as lower-order needs are satisfied.  Frustration—failure to satisfy a need.  Frustration regression—reverting to a previously satisfied need after failing to satisfy another need.  Aspiration—satisfaction of the growth need increases its importance and the desire for more growth.

16. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—16 Alderfer’s ERG Theory Growth Needs 1. Internal Self-Esteem Needs 2. Self-Actualization Needs Relatedness Needs 1. Social Needs 2. Social Esteem Needs 3. Interpersonal Safety Needs Existence Needs 1. Physiological Needs 2. Material Safety Needs FIGURE 7–3

17. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—17 Satisfying Existence, Relatedness, and Growth Needs Existence Opportunities HeatAir ConditioningClean Air LightingRest RoomsDrinking Water Base SalaryCafeteriaSafe Conditions InsuranceJob SecurityNo Layoffs RetirementHealth ProgramsTime Off Relatedness Opportunities FriendshipQuality Supervision Interpersonal SecurityWork Teams Athletic TeamsSocial Events Social RecognitionMerit Pay Growth Opportunities Challenging JobAutonomy CreativityInteresting Work Organizational AdvancementAchievement ResponsibilityParticipation FIGURE 7–4

18. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—18 Content Theories of Motivation Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory  The theory posits that there are two sets of needs (motivators and hygienes) that affect individual motivation and that they are not on a single continuum.  Motivators (growth needs/satisfiers)—long-term needs related to job content; to having sense of achievement (growth and self-actualization) from performing a job.  Hygienes (dissatisfiers)—job context needs that must be met for an individual to avoid dissatisfaction; they do not necessarily provide satisfaction or motivation.

19. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—19 Herzberg’s versus Traditional View of Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction FIGURE 7–5 DB CA Low Great dissatisfactionGreat satisfaction Low High Satisfaction Dissatisfaction (a) Herzberg’s view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction (b) Traditional view of satisfaction and dissatisfaction

20. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—20 Content Theories of Motivation Self-Determination Theory (SDT)  The theory seeks to explain both the causes of motivation and how extrinsic rewards affect intrinsic motivation.  Extrinsic motivation—performance of a behavior to acquire an external reward that will satisfy a lower- order need (e.g., working for wages).  Intrinsic motivation—performance of a behavior that in and of itself is rewarding (e.g., completing a crossword puzzle) and satisfies a higher-order need.  Increases in extrinsic rewards can decrease the level of intrinsic motivation in the performance of an activity.

21. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—21 Process Theories of Motivation Operant Conditioning Theory Equity Theory Goal Theory Expectancy Theory

22. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—22 Process Theories of Motivation Operant Conditioning Theory  The theory posits that people learn to behave in a particular fashion as a result of the consequences that have followed their past behaviors.  Operant conditioning—a learning process based on the results produced by a person “operating on” the environment. The reaction of the environment is to reward, punish, or ignore the person.  Reinforcement—occurs when a consequence makes behavior more likely to be repeated.  Extinction—occurs when a consequence or no consequence makes behavior less likely to be repeated.

23. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—23 Process Theories of Motivation Operant Conditioning Theory  Learning process steps:  Stimulus (S)—any situation or perceived event to which an individual responds.  Response (R)—any behavior or action taken in reaction to a stimulus.  Consequence (C)—any event (positive or negative) following a response that makes the response more (or less) likely to recur.

24. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—24 Process Theories of Motivation General Operant Model: General Operant Model: S → R → C Ways to Strengthen the S → R Link 1.S → R → C+(Positive Reinforcement) 2.S → R → C–(Negative Reinforcement) 3.S → R → (no C–)(Avoidance Learning) Ways to Weaken the S → R Link 1.S → R → (no C)(Nonreinforcement) 2.S → R → C–(Punishment) // TABLE 7–3

25. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—25 Process Theories of Motivation Operant Conditioning Theory (cont’d)  Making a response more likely by:  Positive reinforcement  Negative reinforcement  Avoidance learning  Making a response less likely by:  Punishment  Nonreinforcement

26. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—26 Process Theories of Motivation Operant Conditioning Theory (cont’d)  Schedules of reinforcement  Fixed ratio— a specific number of responses must be made before reinforcement (consequence) occurs.  Variable ratio—the number of responses before reinforcement varies around an average number of responses  Fixed interval—a certain amount of time must past before reinforcement occurs.  Variable interval—the amount of time before reinforcement varies around an average time interval.

27. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—27 Process Theories of Motivation Equity Theory  Theory states that motivation is affected by the an individual’s perception of the equity (“fairness”) of the outcomes (rewards) they receive in return for their inputs (efforts), compared to the outcomes and inputs of other people (referent others).  Referent other ratio comparisons:  State of equity—ratio comparison is satisfactory.  Overreward—ratio comparison favors the individual.  Underreward—ratio comparison favors the referent other.

28. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—28 The Equity Theory Comparison OUTCOMES PERSON INPUTS PERSON OUTCOMES REFERENT OTHER INPUTS REFERENT OTHER FIGURE 7–6 ??

29. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—29 Process Theories of Motivation Equity Theory (cont’d)  Responses to a perceived state of inequity:  Alter inputs of the person  Alter outcomes of the person  Alter inputs of the referent other  Alter outcomes of the referent other  Distort perceptions of inputs or outcomes  Choose a different referent other  Leave the situation

30. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—30 Process Theories of Motivation Goal Theory  The theory states that people will perform better if they have difficult, specific accepted performance goals or objectives.  People will attempt to achieve those goals that they intend to achieve.  Difficult goals result in better performance than easy goals.  Specific goals are better than vague goals.  People must accept goals as their own if they are to work toward achieving them.  People must commit to goals to achieve them.

31. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—31 Process Theories of Motivation The Goal Setting Process Personal  Present  Goal  Goal  Consequences ValuesSituationSettingCharacteristics How the world should be Am I consistent with my values? 1.Self-set 2.Participative 3.Assigned 4.Do your best 1.Difficulty 2.Specificity 3.Acceptance 4.Commitment 1.Performance 2.Satisfaction 3.Rewards TABLE 7–4

32. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—32 Process Theories of Motivation Expectancy Theory  The theory posits that rational people will exert high levels of effort to perform at high levels so they can obtain valued outcomes.  Direction—which alternative to choose?  Intensity—how much effort to implement the alternative?  Valence—the degree to which a person perceives an outcome as being desirable, neutral, or undesirable.  Organizations must make outcomes contingent upon performance and they should also equitably distribute outcomes based on performance.

33. Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 7—33 The Expectancy Theory of Motivation Outcome A (V a ) Outcome B (V b ) Outcome C (V c ) Performance Effort 1. EffortPerformance Expectancy (EP; E1) 2. PerformanceOutcome Expectancy (PO; E2) 3. Valences (V) of Outcomes (V o ) E1 EP E2 a b c P O FIGURE 7–7