1. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 1 Student Motivation, Personal Growth, and Inclusion Chapter 9

2. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 2 The Role of Motivation in Teaching Motivation: the degree of attraction the learner has to a particular learning task Motivation: the degree of attraction the learner has to a particular learning task A teacher’s job is to be able to: A teacher’s job is to be able to: Increase student motivation extrinsically Increase student motivation extrinsically Develop student intrinsic motivation Develop student intrinsic motivation

3. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 3 Theories of Motivation: The Why of Behavior Behaviorism Behaviorism Social learning theory Social learning theory Self determination theory Self determination theory Achievement goal and social goals theory Achievement goal and social goals theory

4. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 4 The selection of a theory is not an either/or decision The selection of a theory is not an either/or decision No one theory can explain all of human motivation No one theory can explain all of human motivation Teachers will use a variety of theories for different circumstances Teachers will use a variety of theories for different circumstances

5. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 5 Behaviorism When the consequences for what we do are positive behavior is reinforced. When the consequences for what we do are positive behavior is reinforced. When we are reinforced for our behavior the likelihood of learning a behavior and repeating that behavior increases. When we are reinforced for our behavior the likelihood of learning a behavior and repeating that behavior increases. Positive reinforcement is more powerful than negative reinforcement. Positive reinforcement is more powerful than negative reinforcement.

6. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 6 Examples of Behaviorism A teacher tells students they are really proud of the way they are responding. A teacher tells students they are really proud of the way they are responding. A teacher brings out a tight roll by asking students to roll across the width of the mat rather than the length A teacher brings out a tight roll by asking students to roll across the width of the mat rather than the length A teacher rewards a class with ten minutes of shooting after practicing passing to a moving player in basketball A teacher rewards a class with ten minutes of shooting after practicing passing to a moving player in basketball

7. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 7 Social Learning Theory We learn through: We learn through: Observation of others Observation of others When we are reinforced by others When we are reinforced by others Comparing ourselves to others Comparing ourselves to others

8. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 8 Examples of Social Learning Theory Students watch others “get away with doing something” they know is inappropriate and therefore want to do it as well Students watch others “get away with doing something” they know is inappropriate and therefore want to do it as well Students who do well are reinforced when their peers and teachers acknowledge their performance Students who do well are reinforced when their peers and teachers acknowledge their performance Students make the decision they are not good at something because they observe others are better Students make the decision they are not good at something because they observe others are better

9. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 9 Self Determination Theory Students are more likely to be engaged in something when they are acting out of their own volition and “want”, “choose” to do it, Students are more likely to be engaged in something when they are acting out of their own volition and “want”, “choose” to do it, People have shared psychological needs that influence their likelihood to engage in an activity: People have shared psychological needs that influence their likelihood to engage in an activity: Need for competence Need for competence Need for autonomy Need for autonomy Need for Relatedness Need for Relatedness

10. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 10 Self Determination Theory Levels of Motivation Amotivation Amotivation Extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation

11. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 11 Amotivation The student has no stimulation to engage in the activity: The student has no stimulation to engage in the activity: Feelings of incompetence Feelings of incompetence Little value for the activity Little value for the activity

12. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 12 Extrinsic Motivation External External Participation to gain a reward Participation to gain a reward Feelings of guilt if they don’t Feelings of guilt if they don’t Recognize it is “good for me” Recognize it is “good for me” External motivation is not always “bad” but intrinsic motivation is “better”. External motivation is not always “bad” but intrinsic motivation is “better”.

13. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 13 Intrinsic Motivation Participation for the sake of the activity as an end in itself. Participation for the sake of the activity as an end in itself. Participation gives them a sense of: Participation gives them a sense of: “Personal growth” or learning “Personal growth” or learning Opportunity to feel a sense of accomplishment Opportunity to feel a sense of accomplishment Opportunity to feel stimulation, joy, delight of the aesthetics of the experience Opportunity to feel stimulation, joy, delight of the aesthetics of the experience

14. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 14 Supporting Student Competence, Autonomy and Relatedness Focus student on task mastery and personal improvement Focus student on task mastery and personal improvement Give students opportunities for choices – autonomy Give students opportunities for choices – autonomy Create a social environment that is socially supportive for each student Create a social environment that is socially supportive for each student

15. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 15 Achievement Goal and Social Goals Theory Students can tale two perspectives on what you ask them to do: Students can tale two perspectives on what you ask them to do: Mastery goal (task) orientation: success is achieved through intrinsic interest, high effort and cooperation Mastery goal (task) orientation: success is achieved through intrinsic interest, high effort and cooperation Goal (ego) orientation: success is achieved by being better than everyone else (social comparison) Goal (ego) orientation: success is achieved by being better than everyone else (social comparison)

16. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 16 Task and ego orientation are identified as the locus of control – what a student attributes their success or failure to. Task and ego orientation are identified as the locus of control – what a student attributes their success or failure to. Students who take a more task orientation are likely to be more intrinsically motivated Students who take a more task orientation are likely to be more intrinsically motivated Teachers who foster a task oriented climate produce more competence Teachers who foster a task oriented climate produce more competence

17. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 17 Creating a Task/mastery Oriented Climate Help students to attribute their success to things they can control: Help students to attribute their success to things they can control: Effort Effort Intrinsic interest Intrinsic interest Cooperation Cooperation And not to: And not to: Genetics Genetics Chance Chance Equipment Equipment Someone else Someone else Give students choices so they may function with the content at their own level Give students choices so they may function with the content at their own level Reinforce effort Reinforce effort

18. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 18 Creating Positive Social Environments Students must feel psychologically safe Students must feel psychologically safe PE performance tends to be public and threatening PE performance tends to be public and threatening Do not put students in a position of failure with their peers or the teacher Do not put students in a position of failure with their peers or the teacher Help students who are not perceived positively by others to establish positive social relationships Help students who are not perceived positively by others to establish positive social relationships

19. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 19 Interest Theories Two kinds of interest have been identified Two kinds of interest have been identified Personal: Inherent desire to participate Personal: Inherent desire to participate Situational: Characteristics of the task Situational: Characteristics of the task Situational interest can be developed through novelty and challenge Situational interest can be developed through novelty and challenge Importance of curriculums that do not repeat what students have done previous year Importance of curriculums that do not repeat what students have done previous year Novel tasks or a novel way of doing something students have done in the past Novel tasks or a novel way of doing something students have done in the past Students should not be able to come into our classes and be able to predict what we are going to do and how we are going to do it Students should not be able to come into our classes and be able to predict what we are going to do and how we are going to do it

20. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 20 Implications of Theories of Motivation for Teaching Students must perceive what is to be learned as meaningful. Students must perceive what is to be learned as meaningful. Use a variety of teaching strategies. Use a variety of teaching strategies. Design tasks to permit each student to function at optimum level of challenge. Design tasks to permit each student to function at optimum level of challenge. Use external forms of motivation with care. Use external forms of motivation with care. Increase motivation with a variety of learning activities and novel and interesting tasks. Increase motivation with a variety of learning activities and novel and interesting tasks.

21. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 21 Implications of Theories of Motivation for Teaching Add personal meaning and help students to see the purpose for what you are doing. Add personal meaning and help students to see the purpose for what you are doing. Use culminating activities to help students see the results of extended and motivated practice. Use culminating activities to help students see the results of extended and motivated practice. Help students to understand what it means to be a beginner. Help students to understand what it means to be a beginner. Help students to set goals for physical education that are those of the participant, not the professional. Help students to set goals for physical education that are those of the participant, not the professional.

22. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 22 Implications of Theories of Motivation for Teaching Use humor. Use humor. Help students to attribute their success and failure to a cause controllable by the student. Help students to attribute their success and failure to a cause controllable by the student.

23. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 23 Promoting Personal Growth Through Personal Interaction Act in the student’s best interest from the perspective of an adult. Act in the student’s best interest from the perspective of an adult. Learn students’ names and use them. Learn students’ names and use them. Be enthusiastic and positive about what you are doing. Be enthusiastic and positive about what you are doing. Project a caring attitude toward all students. Project a caring attitude toward all students. Reinforce basic and shared beliefs of honesty, respect, risk taking, and effort. Reinforce basic and shared beliefs of honesty, respect, risk taking, and effort.

24. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 24 Promoting Personal Growth Through Personal Interaction Do not reinforce behavior destructive to self or others by doing nothing about it. Do not reinforce behavior destructive to self or others by doing nothing about it. Treat all students equitably. Treat all students equitably. Learn to be a good listener and observer of student responses. Learn to be a good listener and observer of student responses. Chart your own life for personal growth. Chart your own life for personal growth.

25. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 25 Motivation and Personal Growth Through Instructional Decision Making Make explicit in your planning how you are going to motivate and teach for personal growth. Make explicit in your planning how you are going to motivate and teach for personal growth.

26. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 26 Selecting and Designing Learning Experiences Select tasks that are at an appropriate level of ability for all students. Select tasks that are at an appropriate level of ability for all students. Provide alternative tasks Provide alternative tasks Design the task so that it has flexibility for different levels Design the task so that it has flexibility for different levels Give students a choice Give students a choice Manipulate the conditions of practice to allow different abilities to function within the task Manipulate the conditions of practice to allow different abilities to function within the task Use self-testing activities within a framework of personal improvement Use self-testing activities within a framework of personal improvement

27. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 27 Use Tasks That Involve Competition Appropriately Design experiences to give every student an equal chance at winning. Design experiences to give every student an equal chance at winning. Focus students on external and controllable aspects of competition. Focus students on external and controllable aspects of competition. Group students homogeneously by skill level for competition. Group students homogeneously by skill level for competition. Evaluate students on their improvement. Evaluate students on their improvement.

28. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 28 Use Tasks That Involve Competition Appropriately Use self-testing activities and assessment activities that focus on improvement Use self-testing activities and assessment activities that focus on improvement Give students a choice of competing and level of competing Give students a choice of competing and level of competing Use group self-testing task Use group self-testing task

29. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 29 Find Different Ways to Practice the Same Thing Find alternative tasks that require the same skills (parallel development) Find alternative tasks that require the same skills (parallel development) Distribute practice of the same task over days in a unit Distribute practice of the same task over days in a unit Design the curriculum so that some pieces of equipment are reserved for older students Design the curriculum so that some pieces of equipment are reserved for older students

30. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 30 Presenting Units and Tasks Use advance organizers for units and lessons Use advance organizers for units and lessons Use motivating introductions to lessons and units Use motivating introductions to lessons and units Give students a sense of the whole when beginning unfamiliar activities Give students a sense of the whole when beginning unfamiliar activities Personalize introductions to units and lessons Personalize introductions to units and lessons

31. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 31 Organizational Arrangements Use individual, group and other organizations to make the practice interesting Use individual, group and other organizations to make the practice interesting Group students with a purpose Group students with a purpose Use homogeneous and heterogeneous grouping with purpose Use homogeneous and heterogeneous grouping with purpose Provide opportunity to maintain group membership Provide opportunity to maintain group membership Use novel types of equipment or novel types of arrangements of equipment to add interest Use novel types of equipment or novel types of arrangements of equipment to add interest

32. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 32 Pacing of Lessons Pacing: Knowing when to let students continue practice, when to change the focus or refocus efforts, and when to change the task altogether Pacing: Knowing when to let students continue practice, when to change the focus or refocus efforts, and when to change the task altogether Often it is the teacher and not the student who is bored with a task Often it is the teacher and not the student who is bored with a task Make clear the difference between games and scrimmages Make clear the difference between games and scrimmages

33. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 33 Assessment of Tasks, Units, and Lessons Find time for assessment - teach less Find time for assessment - teach less Provide opportunities for students to develop their own criteria for their work Provide opportunities for students to develop their own criteria for their work Provide opportunities for peer and self- assessment Provide opportunities for peer and self- assessment Take a few minutes as part of every class to review what students have done individually Take a few minutes as part of every class to review what students have done individually

34. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 34 Teaching Affective Goals as a Lesson Focus Understand the affective goals part of the National Content Standards for Physical Education Understand the affective goals part of the National Content Standards for Physical Education Build affective objectives into instruction and reinforce those objectives on a daily basis Build affective objectives into instruction and reinforce those objectives on a daily basis

35. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 35 Teaching Affective Goals as a Lesson Focus Model the affective objective you want students to acquire Model the affective objective you want students to acquire Help students to see the value of the behavior you are teaching Help students to see the value of the behavior you are teaching Put the application of the value you are teaching into concrete and specific examples Put the application of the value you are teaching into concrete and specific examples Positively reinforce the values you want to teach Positively reinforce the values you want to teach

36. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 36 Physical Education for Inclusion Tolerance is the ability to respect the integrity of others who are different. Tolerance is the ability to respect the integrity of others who are different. Equitable treatment for all students is not only a moral imperative. It is an investment in the future. Equitable treatment for all students is not only a moral imperative. It is an investment in the future. Help students to see diversity as a strength. Help students to see diversity as a strength.

37. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 37 Physical Education for Inclusion: Becoming Aware Watch for your own stereotyping language and behavior. See people as individuals. Watch for your own stereotyping language and behavior. See people as individuals. Recognize that equal does not always mean fair. Recognize that equal does not always mean fair. Familiarize yourself with other world views. Familiarize yourself with other world views. Attend events of different cultures. Attend events of different cultures. Involve representatives from different cultures in the planning of your program. Involve representatives from different cultures in the planning of your program. Do an analysis of who you are interacting with in your teaching and how. Do an analysis of who you are interacting with in your teaching and how.

38. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 38 Developing a Climate for Inclusion Model attitudes toward differences Model attitudes toward differences Teach students to respect the personal property of others Teach students to respect the personal property of others When students demonstrate disrespect toward you do not respond in kind When students demonstrate disrespect toward you do not respond in kind Positively reinforce appropriate behavior Positively reinforce appropriate behavior Facilitate but do not force interaction between students who demonstrate unfriendly behavior toward each other. Facilitate but do not force interaction between students who demonstrate unfriendly behavior toward each other. Use cooperative learning strategies Use cooperative learning strategies Build into your program opportunities to teach students about different cultures Build into your program opportunities to teach students about different cultures

39. ©2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 39 Building Equity Gender Equity Gender Equity Ethnic and Cultural Differences Ethnic and Cultural Differences Students from other cultures may Students from other cultures may attach different meanings to language attach different meanings to language hold different perspectives on events hold different perspectives on events may have different values and may interrelate socially in different ways. may have different values and may interrelate socially in different ways. Disadvantaged Students Disadvantaged Students Students with Disabilities Students with Disabilities