1. THREATS TO ATLANTIC SALMON SUSTAINABILITY IN NEW ENGLAND Stephen D. McCormick USGS, Conte Anadromous Fish Research Center, Turners Falls, MA University of Massachusetts, Amherst

2. ATLANTIC SALMON LIFE HISTORY

3. THE ENDANGERED ATLANTIC SALMON COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY: THE KROGH PRINCIPLE –OSMOREGULATION AND MIGRATION n COMMERCIAL & SOCIAL IMPORTANCE t FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE n WILD SALMON ARE DECLINING WORLDWIDE t DUE TO HABITAT LOSS, DAMS, POLLUTION, OVEREXPLOITATION

4. SALMON RIVERS OF NEW ENGLAND RIVERS IN SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND EXTIRPATED IN THE 1800’S DUE TO DAM CONSTRUCTION & HABITAT LOSS SALMON IN DOWNEAST MAINE RIVERS DECLINED IN THE 1970’s.

5. VERMONT NEW HAMPSHIRE RHODEISLANDRHODEISLAND MASSACHUSETTS CONNECTICUT THE CONNECTICUT RIVER 40,000 SQ KM WATERSHED LARGEST RIVER IN NEW ENGLAND PROBABLY HELD THE LARGEST SALMON POPULATIONS IN NEW ENGLAND (10,000-50,000)

6. 1850 Present DAMS ON THE CONNECTICUT RIVER 1850

7. HISTORY OF ATLANTIC SALMON ON THE CONNECTICUT RIVER 1798: Turners Falls Dam built – led to salmon declines 1850: Holyoke dam enlarged – led to salmon extirpation 1869-1888: First salmon restoration attempt 1965: Anadromous Fisheries Conservation Act 1967: Current salmon restoration program initiated Turners Falls Holyoke

8. SALMON RESTORATION ON THE CONNECTICUT RIVER FRY STOCKINGSMOLT STOCKING

9. Smolts Stocked into the Connecticut River THOUSANDS

10. Fry Stocked into the Connecticut River

11. Adult Atlantic salmon returns to the Connecticut River

12. Summary of Total Atlantic Salmon Returns (186) By Location in 2005 Holyoke 71% Westfield 15% Rainbow 8% Leesville 6%

13. INITIAL SUCCESS OF STOCKING ATLANTIC SALMON IN THE CONNECTICUT RIVER, BUT… WHAT FACTORS ARE LIMITING A MORE COMPLETE RESTORATION?

14. RESEARCH IN SUPPORT OF SALMON RESTORATION ON THE CONNECTICUT RIVER HOW MANY SMOLTS ARE PRODUCED FROM FRY STOCKING? WHEN DO THEY MIGRATE DOWNSTREAM, AND WHAT CAUSES THEM TO MIGRATE? WHAT ARE THE IMPACTS OF DAMS ON SMOLT SURVIVAL AND MIGRATION?

15. Labor intensive Expensive Variable and low efficiencies Prone to wash out PREVIOUS TECHNOLOGY FOR ASSESSING SMOLT MIGRATION : - COUNTING FENCES - BYPASS STRUCTURES - RADIO/ACOUSTIC TAGS - MARK-RECAPTURE

16. COMPUTER CHIPS IN FISH (Get it, fish & chips?)

17. WIRING THE STREAM ANTENNA 12 guage wire in PVC TUNING BOX CABLE READERS, PALMTOP COMPUTERS, DEEP CYCLE BATTERIES

18. PIT TAGGING OF JUVENILE ATLANTIC SALMON

19. TIMING OF SPRING SMOLT MIGRATION IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE

20. TIMING OF SPRING SMOLT MIGRATION Over 6 years, only a 6 day difference in median migration date -indirect evidence for role of daylength in controlling migration

21. EFFECT OF PHOTOPERIOD ON DOWNSTREAM MOVEMENTS IN ATLANTIC SALMON SMOLTS LDN LONG DAYS SHORT DAYS APRIL MAY DOWNSTREAM MOVEMENT

22. TIMING OF SPRING SMOLT MIGRATION Over 6 years, only a 6 day difference in median migration date -indirect evidence for role of daylength in controlling migration

23. TIMING OF SPRING SMOLT MIGRATION IN RELATION TO TEMPERATURE CUMULATIVE DEGREE DAYS IN APRIL WAS A BETTER PREDICTOR OF MIGRATION TIMING THAN DATE AT 10 o C - SUGGESTS FISH ARE ‘SUMMING’ TEMPERATURE RATHER THAN RESPONDING TO A THRESHOLD TEMPERATURE

24. OVERWINTER SURVIVAL OF JUVENILE ATLANTIC SALMON (> 11.5 cm; October to May) 1998-99 44.5 % 1999-0027.6 % 2000-0168.2 % 2001-0235.1 % 2002-0364.1 % 2003-0441.6 % Winters are tough!

25. SMOLT MIGRATION ON THE MAINSTEM OF THE CONNECTICUT RIVER Tagging salmon smolts with acoustic tags

26. SMOLT MIGRATION ON THE MAINSTEM OF THE CONNECTICUT RIVER DAMS ARE TOUGH ON SMOLTS - HIGHER MORTALITY - SLOWER MIGRATION

27. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING SMOLTING

28. INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON SMOLT PHYSIOLOGY HIGHER TEMPERATURES AND TIME RESULT IN LOSS OF SEAWATER PREPAREDNESS - DAMS THAT RESULT IN DELAYS WILL DECREASE SMOLT SURVIVAL

29. RECENT DECLINES IN ATLANTIC SALMON POPULATIONS IN MAINE ATLANTIC SALMON IN EASTERN MAINE MAINE WERE STABLE UNTIL RECENTLY DECLINES BEGAN IN 70’S LISTED AS ENDANGERED SPECIES IN 2000 RETURNING ADULTS NARRAGUAGUS RIVER

30. HYPOTHESIZED CAUSES OF MAINE ATLANTIC SALMON POPULATION DECLINES ACID PRECIPITATION AND ASSOCIATED ALUMINUM TOXICITY ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS (CONTAMINANTS THAT ACT AS HORMONES, AFFECT DEVELOPMENT AND SURVIVAL) HERBICIDES AND PESTICIDES FROM AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY IMPACTS OF SALMON FARMING DISEASE OCEAN CONDITIONS ACID/ALUMINUM AND ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS MAY SPECIFICALLY IMPACT SMOLTS

31. ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM OF ACID RAIN (United States Geological Survey) Anthropogenic acidification results in episodic pulses of acidity during spring snowmelts and fall storms TRIPLE WHAMMY OF ACID RAIN: MORE ACID IN STREAMS REMOVAL OF NATURAL BUFFERING (Ca and Mg) MORE ALUMINUM LEACHED FROM SOIL; BECOMES TOXIC AT LOW pH

32. SENSITIVITIES OF SALMON LIFE STAGES TO ACID & ALUMINUM Eggs delayed hatching increased mortality Fry increased mortality decreased ion content Smolt increased mortality plasma ion loss in FW loss of SW tolerance Parr smaller parr more sensitive than larger parr decreased plasma ions Alevins impaired ion uptake decreased growth and yolk reabsorption

33. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHANGES DURING SMOLTING

34. ACID AND ALUMINUM INTERACT TO CAUSE MORTALITY OF ATLANTIC SALMON THE CAUSE OF MORTALITY IS COMPROMISED ION REGULATION (LOSS IN FW, GAIN IN SW) IMPACT OF ACID & ALUMINUM ON SMOLT SURVIVAL PERCENT MORTALITY (ug./l)

35. MAINE RIVER WATER CHEMISTRY (NOAA Fisheries, 2003) 5. Dennys 8. Pleasant 9. Narraguagas 11. Penobscot 9 8 5 11 = Dennys = Narraguagas = Pleasant = Penobscot

36. STREAM-SIDE REARING OF SMOLTS IN MAINE RIVERS HOLD SMOLTS IN NATURAL WATERS FOR 6 DAYS DURING NORMAL SPRING MIGRATION, MONITOR SURVIVAL AND PHYSIOLOGY NO MORTALITY, BUT A CLEAR pH-RELATED COMPROMISE OF ION REGULATION.

37. CONTAMINANTS THAT ACT AS ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS Smolt-to-Adult Survival (%) Percent of Basin Sprayed(Fairchild et al., 1999) INCREASED SPRAYING OF MATACIL (CONTAINING 2% NONYLPHENOL) IS CORRELATED WITH POORER SMOLT-TO-ADULT SURVIVAL OF ATLANTIC SALMON IN NEW BRUNSWICK RIVERS

38. ENDOCRINE DISRUPTION OF THE PARR- SMOLT TRANSFORMATION IN ATLANTIC SALMON EXPOSURE TO NONYLPHENOL CAUSED LOSS OF SEAWATER TOLERANCE. BUT THIS ONLY OCCURRED AT RELATIVELY HIGH CONCENTRATIONS, HIGHER THAN THOSE SEEN IN NATURE. ARE OTHER LIFE STAGES MORE SENSITIVE?

39. Exposure to nonylphenol As yolk-sac larvae (21 days) Smolts-sampling 1 Year, in clean water FreshwaterSeawater challenge Stress Seawater preference ENDOCRINE DISRUPTION OF THE PARR-SMOLT TRANSFORMATION IN ATLANTIC SALMON

40. EFFECT OF NONYLPHENOL ON SURVIVAL OF ATLANTIC SALMON YOLK-SAC LARVAE NP MORTALITY OCCURRED AT HIGH NP CONCENTRATIONS (THIS DOSE DID NOT KILL SMOLTS) DELAYED MORTALITY 30 DAYS AFTER EXPOSURE AT LOW NP

41. Gill Na +, K + -ATPase and seawater tolerance are significantly reduced in smolts 1 year after exposure to NP as larvae. p = 0.0030 VCE2E2 NP p = 0.0056p = 0.0002 VCE2E2 NP VEH E2 NP EFFECT OF NONYLPHENOL AND ESTRADIOL ON SMOLT DEVELOPMENT, ONE YEAR AFTER EXPOSURE

42. FACTORS AFFECTING RESTORATION & CONSERVATION OF ATLANTIC SALMON SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND LOSS OF ORIGINAL GENETIC STOCKS DAMS HAVE IMPACTED AND CONTINUE TO IMPACT ATLANTIC SALMON IN SOUTHERN NEW ENGLAND DOWNEAST MAINE CONTAMINANTS SUCH AS ACID RAIN AND PESTICIDES MAY HAVE PLAYED A ROLE IN SALMON DECLINES IN MAINE EFFECTS CAN BE SUBTLE, AFFECTING SPECIFIC LIFE STAGES, AND CAUSING INDIRECT MORTALITY THROUGH COMPROMISED SEAWATER TOLERANCE, DISEASE RESISTANCE AND OTHER PATHWAYS.

43. REASONS FOR OPTIMISM FOR THE FATE OF ATLANTIC SALMON DAM REMOVAL (PENOBSCOT RIVER) INNOVATIONS IN FISH PASSAGE: -UPSTREAM AND DOWNSTREAM CONTINUED DEVELOPMENT OF A ‘CONNECTICUT RIVER’ STOCK OF ATLANTIC SALMON CONTINUED RESEARCH WILL ALLOW US TO MORE CLEARLY DEFINE FACTORS THAT AFFECT SALMON SURVIVAL CONTINUED PUBLIC SUPPORT

44. ATLANTIC SALMON LIFE HISTORY

45. SEAWATER (1000 mOsm) 325 mOsm OSMOREGULATORY PHYSIOLOGY OF TELEOST FISH WATERIONS 300 mOsm FRESH WATER (5 mOsm) WATERIONS ION UPTAKE DILUTE URINE ION SECRETION DRINK ISOOSMOTIC URINE