1. Oceanic Circulation I. How oceans work II. Surface currents III. Deep Currents IV: The Air-Sea Interactions (ENSO)

2. The Role of Oceans in Global Climate Variability

3. The Role of Oceans in Hydrological Cycle 97% of the Earth’s free water 86% of the global evaporation 78% of global precipitation

4. I. How oceans work 1.Area: covers 70% of the Earth’s surface 2.Volume: 97% of all the water on the Earth 3.Depth: 4 kilometers 4.Density: 1034-1035 kg/m 3 (Pure water: 1000 kg/m 3 ) over 90% of the ocean. Depends on temperature and salinity. cold water  high density loss of water by evaporation  increase salinity  high density precipitation and river discharge  decrease salinity  low density 5.Heat capacity: high 6.Temperature: less variable than in the atmosphere 7.Freezing point: – 1.9°C, not at 0°C because of salinity 8.Surface is not level due to currents, waves, atmospheric pressure differences, and variations in gravity. 9.Two main forms of circulation: wind-driven circulation (horizontal, surface waters, fast) thermohaline circulation (vertical, deep waters, slow)

5. I. How oceans work (Cont’d)

6. Relative proportions of dissolved salts in seawater

7. Annual Mean Ocean Surface Temperature

8. Annual Zonal Mean Ocean Surface Temperature

9. Annual Mean Ocean Surface Salinity

10. Annual Zonal Mean Ocean Salinity

11. Ocean Meridional Overturning (Global)

12. Ocean Meridional Overturning in Atlantic

13. I. How oceans work (Cont’d) A. Heated primarily by Sun, largely at the Equator, with global heat transfer by ocean currents  profound effect of oceans on climate B. Two overall layers 1. Thin, warm, less dense surface layer well mixed by turbulence generated by wind 2. Thick, cold, more dense deep layer that is calm and marked by slow currents 3. Thermocline is the boundary between the layers

14. Mixed Layer Processes Vigorous mixing processes lead to uniform conditions within the surface mixed layer.

15. Mixed Layer Processes

16. I. How oceans work (Cont’d)

17. Quiz 1. Which of the following is NOT true about the oceans? A. Approximately 97% of the total water on Earth is located in the oceans B. The oceans cover about 70% of Earth’s surface C. The average depth of the oceans is about 4 km. D. The sea surface is level for all the oceans. E. Because it takes far more energy to change the temperature of water than land or air, water warms up and cools off much more slowly than either. 2. The three largest reservoirs of water at the earth’s surface in decreasing order of volume are: A. oceans, ice caps/glaciers, and ground water B. oceans, ice caps/glaciers, and soils C. oceans, lakes/rivers, and soils D. oceans, atmosphere, and biosphere E. oceans, ground water, and soils 3. What is the primary salt in the ocean? A. methaneB. CO2C. FeO2D. CaSO4 E. NaCl 4. Which of the following increase salinity? A. EvaporationB. Precipitation.C. Formation of sea ice.D. River runoff. E. A and C only.

18. II. Surface currents

19. A. Three primary forces 1.Global wind patterns cause surface ocean currents because of frictional drag 2. Coriolis effect 3. Pressure gradients

20. B. Global wind patterns cause surface ocean currents because of frictional drag 1.Creation of waves 2. Creation of hemisphere- scale gyres 3. Decrease in current speed with depth January July

21. C. Coriolis effect 1. Earth rotation speed is greatest at Equator falling to zero at Poles 2. Conservation of angular momentum a. Deflection to the right for component of Equator-to-Pole flow in Northern Hemisphere b. Deflection to the left for component of Equator-to-Pole flow in Southern Hemisphere

22. C. Coriolis effect (Cont’d) 3. Creation of Ekman Spiral a. To depth of 100 m b. Surface current moves 20-45 o from the wind direction (45 o in theory) c. Deflection increases with depth, forming a spiral d. Net transport of water is 90 o from the wind direction

23. C. Coriolis effect (Cont’d) 3. Creation of Ekman Spiral a. To depth of 100 m b. Surface current moves 20-45 o from the wind direction (45 o in theory) c. Deflection increases with depth, forming a spiral d. Net transport of water is 90 o from the wind direction

24. D. Pressure gradients 1. Differences in water height (i.e., piling of water against a continent because of the wind) 2. Density differences because of temperature or salinity 3. Atmospheric pressure differences E. Geostrophic currents - balance of Coriolis force by pressure gradient F. Land forms barriers to global ocean currents

25. G. Resultant overall current pattern 1. Currents converge toward Equator following Trade Winds and ITCZ 2. Westward flow along Equator (i.e., North and South Equatorial Currents) 3. Equatorial Currents turn poleward where they encounter land barriers (e.g., Gulf Stream) 4. Eastward flow of currents is enhanced by the Westerlies 5. Currents turn toward the Equator where they encounter land barriers, completing the gyres

26. Effects of surface currents 6. Significant heat transfer a. More solar heating and evaporation at Equator, less at Poles  salinity and temperature Equator/Pole gradient b. Warm and salty water carried poleward

27. Effects of surface currents 7. Zones of upwelling a. Deflection of water away from continent b. Upwelling of deeper water to replace surface water c. Commonly nutrient rich

28. 7. Zones of upwelling

29. III. Deep Currents A. Thermohaline-driven currents 1. Greater salinity  greater density 2. Lower temperature  greater density 3. Equilibrium is sought in global-scale deep currents (conveyor belt)

30. B. Global Conveyor Belt (Cont’d) 1. Warm and salty shallow water from Tropics is carried northward through Atlantic 2. Water cools in North Atlantic and sinks east of Greenland as cold and salty dense water 3. North Atlantic Deep Water flows toward the Equator and into the South Atlantic, where it meets yet colder and denser Antarctic Bottom Water flowing toward the Equator 1 2 3

31. B. Global Conveyor Belt (Cont’d) 4. Combined flow eastward below Africa and into the Pacific Ocean 5. Deflected by Asia 6. Journey through Pacific causes warming and slow rise to surface 7. Warm and less dense Pacific surface waters move south and west to converge toward Equator as shallow surface water to continue warming 4 5 6 7

32. B. Global Conveyor Belt (Cont’d) 8. 1,000 years for a complete cycle 9. Conveyor Belt aided by imbalance between loss of water by evaporation in Atlantic and gain of water by precipitation and runoff 10. Bering Strait prevents free exchange between Arctic and Pacific Oceans  inhibits Arctic-Pacific Conveyor Belt

33. The Role of Oceans I. How oceans work II. Surface currents III. Deep Currents IV: The Air-Sea Interactions (ENSO)

34. The Air-Sea Interactions A. Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) B. El Niño - Southern Oscillation, aka ENSO El Niño : Spanish for boy child; Christ child; referring to warm water conditions and associated consequences, frequently occurring around Christmas Southern Oscillation: A seesaw pattern of reversing surface air pressures at opposite ends of the Pacific Ocean Walker Circulation (zonal convection) refers to the localized zonal (west-east) convection cell of atmospheric circulation above the Pacific Ocean. The easterly trade winds are part of the low-level component of the Walker circulation. C. La Niña: (girl child) Opposite extreme of El Niño

35. A. Inter-tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) 1.What is ITCZ? Region near the equator where the wind systems (trade winds) of the Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere meet. 2. Position changes with season. North of equator in July, (generally) south of equator in January. 3. Broad trough of low pressure, typical of cloudiness, thunderstorm, and heavy precipitation. 4. More intensely developed in the western Pacific because of warm water pool of surface seawater (T = 31 °C) and Asian monsoons. 5. Influences the ocean currents and salinity.

36. El Nino: How it Works

37. Known for over 400 years...

38. Occurs during Christmas season... “Christ Child” “The Boy” “The Little One”

39. Food Chain

40. B. El Niño - Southern Oscillation, a.k.a. ENSO 1.What is ENSO? ENSO is a periodic climatic phenomenon caused by ocean- atmosphere dynamics in the tropical Pacific Ocean. ENSO Process: Every two to seven years, strong westward-blowing SE trade winds subside. Warm water moves back eastward across the Pacific, like water shifting in a giant bathtub. The warm water and shifting winds interrupt the upwelling of cool, nutrient-rich water.

41. El Niño and SOI El Niño / Southern Oscillation: an oscillation in the surface pressure (atmospheric mass) between the SE tropical Pacific and the Australian-Indonesian regions. El Niño : Noticed at Christmas time by Peruvian fisherman; warm coastal waters leading to poor fishing

43. Reading the Index

44. 2. Importance of understanding ENSO a. Severe rapid climate variations caused by El Niño are natural b. El Niño has important consequences for famine and economics around the globe.

45. 3. Basics of ENSO Western equatorial Pacific has some of the world's warmest ocean water. To the east, cool water wells up, carrying nutrients (see Oceans lecture) that support large fish populations

47. Oscillation of surface water in the Pacific

48. 4.What causes ENSO? large-scale internal waves

49. During the warm phase of ENSO (El Niño phase) the West Pacific Warm Pool and its associated low pressure atmospheric center migrate to the east along the equator. The water is transported by these internal waves. Kelvin waves cross the Pacific in 2-3 months and lead to a warming of the surface waters and rise in sea level along Peru. What Causes ENSO?

50. As sea level rises and warm water accumulates in the eastern Pacific, Rossby waves are generated that move west across the Pacific. The time it takes for these waves to cross the Pacific is strongly dependent on the latitude at which the wave is traveling (near the equator, they take a 9 month journey; 12 degrees from the equator, they take 4 years). The Rossby waves reach the Western Pacific, travel along the coast as Kelvin waves to the equator and turn east and begin another crossing of the Pacific. What Causes ENSO?

51. 5. If it’s a tropical phenomenon, why does it affect us in Texas? Teleconnection: during ENSO, warmer, moister air than usual is generated in the eastern part of the ITCZ in the Pacific. This changes atmospheric circulation patterns and deflects the jet stream that goes west-east across US at a more easterly longitude than during non-ENSO year. As a result, different amounts of moisture and heat than usual are delivered to different parts of the world

56. El Nino and Texas

57. December - March: TX wetter and cooler More wet and cool in S. Texas Experience: flooding, high number of storms originating from Gulf of Mexico and tropical Pacific because of the strengthened subtropical jet stream Protect your property: homeowners insurance

58. 6. What’s good and bad about the effects of ENSO? a.This depends on where you live and what your lifestyle is

59. b. 1997-1998 event and the media’s response

60. 7. Measuring El Nino

61. Measuring El Nino Weather Stations Stevenson Screen Temperature Precipitation

62. Weather Station: Colorado

63. Measuring El Nino Buoys

67. Measuring El Nino Satellites

68. Satellites: Temperatures

69. Measuring El Nino Measuring El Nino Sea Surface Temperatures

70. Measuring El Nino: Measuring El Nino: Coral Bleaching