1. Introduction to Reading Educational Research

2. What is Educational Research?
A systematic investigation
Involves the analysis of information (data) for the purpose of
answering a question or
Contributing to our knowledge about an educational theory or practice
Educational research relies on methods and principles that will produce credible and verifiable results

3. Information is gathered from…
Individuals
Groups
Documents
Existing data bases and
Other sources

4. Steps in research (may vary depending on the nature of the study)
Frame the initial question or problem
Determine what previous research says about the question or problem
Frame a research question, problem or hypothesis
Design a plan for collecting data to address the question or problem
Analyze the results of gathered data
Generate conclusions

5. How do you determine whether an article or report is research?
Does the title suggest that data have been gathered from existing records?
The terms study & investigation denote research
Phrases such as an investigation of, the relationship between & the effect of do also
Is there a problem that is investigated?
There must be some question or problem that is the focus of the study
An empirical investigation is designed to answer a specific question or problem

6. How do you determine whether an article or report is research?
Are new data collected?
Most research involves collection of new information
Usually there is a section using such terms as instruments, measures, or data collection
Is there a methodology or methods section?
Is there a findings or results section?
This section often includes tables or graphs to summarize the information

7. Types of Educational Research
There are different methods by which research is carried out
Each method has distinct purposes, advantages, and disadvantages

8. Steps in Becoming an Intelligent Consumer of Educational Research
To be able to recognize that an article or report is, in fact, research
To be able to recognize which method was used
To be able to assess the quality of the research according to criteria appropriate for that method

9. Analyzing a study of parental attitudes toward AIDS Education
You would be most interested in questions like these:
How were the parents chosen for the study?
How many participated?
What method was used to collect data from the parents?
How appropriate were the questions asked?
What inferences were drawn from the results?
How valid were these inferences?

10. Analyzing a study reporting results of an experimental curriculum
What precisely was different about the “experimental” curriculum?
How was it implemented?
What effects was it supposed to have
How did the researchers choose to measure these effects?
Did the researcher use a control group?
How was it selected?
Did the researchers find the effects they were looking for? Were they significant?

11. Quantitative? Qualitative? Analytical?
Quantitative research involves the use of numerical indices to summarize, describe and explore relationships among traits—reliance on control, statistics, measurements, and experiments
Qualitative research—the emphasis is on conducting studies in natural settings using mostly verbal descriptions, resulting in stories and case studies, not statistical reports
Analytical research involves the identification and interpretation of data contained in documents, pictures, and artifacts.

12. Quantitative Research
Experimental Study:
The researcher has control over one or more factors (variables)
Purpose: to determine whether one factor causes a change in another
Types: true experimental; quasi-experimental; single-subject
Nonexperimental Study
No control over what may influence subjects’ responses
Researcher interested in what occurs naturally
Describes phemenona/uncovers relationships

13. Experimental Research Categories
True Experimental
Use of comparison groups
Random assignments to groups
Quasi-experimental
“Manipulates treatments” but doesn’t use randomly assigned treatment groups
Used when randomization of groups is impossible
What they gain in feasibility, they give up in exploratory power
Single-subject
Only one person (or a few) in the study
Used when it is difficult or impossible to identify large groups of subjects
Most common method of data collection is careful observation of targeted behavior

14. Nonexperimental Research
Descriptive
Describe a phenomenon with statistics such as frequencies, percentages, averages, etc.
No comparisons/no relationships
i.e., 20% of teachers indicated that high-stakes tests have a significant effect on what they teach
Comparative
Investigates relationship between 2 or more variables in 2 or more groups
Unlike ex post facto studies, comparative research make no claim of causality

15. Nonexperimental Research
Correlational
Investigate relationships among variables by calculating correlation coefficients rather than looking at differences
Indication of the direction and strength of the relationship sought: positive or negative?
i.e., How well do SAT scores predict college success?
Ex post facto (“after the fact”)
Examines a phenomenon that has already occurred and attempts to infer cause-and-effect relationships
i.e., Do smokers have higher rates of lung cancer than nonsmokers?
Teasing out whether in fact any differences are due to the “treatment” variable is very difficult

16. Qualitative Research Designs
Ethnography
Involves direct engagement with the participants and environments
In-depth description and interpretation of behavior within a culture or social group
Conclusions are based on a synthesis of the data
Case study
In-depth analysis of one or more “bounded systems”

17. Qualitative Research Designs
Phenomenology
Examines in depth the experiences and perceptions of selected participants
Purpose: to understand the essence, the meaning of participants’ perspectives
Grounded Theory
To discover or generate a theory that pertains to a specific entity or phenomenon
Critical Studies
Designed to provide alternative perspectives on contemporary societal problems
Focus on exposing social manipulation and oppression to advocate changes in social systems

18. Analytical Research Historical analysis Legal Analysis
Provides a description and interpretation of past events or persons. Uses both qualitative and quantitative data
Legal Analysis
Focuses on laws and court decisions to understand how legal principles apply to educational practice
Concept Analysis
Conducted in order to understand the meaning and usage of educational concepts (i.e., ability grouping)
Very seldom used in educational research

19. Mixed Models
There is a growing trend in educational research to use mixed models in a study
Combination of two of the three major types of research (i.e., a quantitative study combined with qualitative methods)

20. Research Articles: General Sections
Introduction
Review of the Literature
Research Problem, Question, or Hypothesis
Methodology: subjects, participants, or sources of information
Methodology: Instruments
Discussion & Conclusions

21. Section 1: Introduction
Purpose: to set the context of the study and to indicate the research problem
One to several paragraphs long
Provides background to the study; indicates why it is significant to conduct research
Use of quotes or references to other studies
General statement of the problem

22. Section 2: Review of Literature
Quantitative
One to several paragraphs in which previous studies of the same or similar problem are summarized & analyzed
Purpose: to show how the current study is related to other studies
A good review is selective
Goes beyond a simple reporting of findings—a critical analysis of previous studies

23. Section 2: Review of Literature
Quantitative—Questions to Ask:
Does the review contain relevant, up-to-date studies?
Is there an emphasis on primary sources?
Is there a critical review or a summary of findings?
Is the review well organized?
Does the review clearly relate previous studies to this research problem?
Does the review help establish the importance of research?

24. Section 2: Review of Literature
Qualitative
Use a preliminary literature review to present conceptual frameworks, broad areas of study, and scholarly concepts
This provides a foundation for phrasing foreshadowed questions
A continuing search of the lit is integrated with the methodology and tentative findings and interpretations
By the end of the study, there is a complete review that contains a critique and analysis of works
Quantitative Studies—a clear lit review preceded the methodology
Qualitative Studies—The lit review is interspersed throughout the document

25. Step 3: Research Problem, Question or Hypothesis
State a specific research problem statement, question, and/or research hypothesis
Can come at the end of the introduction; more commonly follows the lit review
It denotes the type of research method being used (i.e.,experimental or non experimental), the independent and dependent variables, and the subjects
Qualitative: more general statement that provides a broad framework for beginning the study and is reformulated as data are collected. Emphasis on what, where, and why, rather than on relationship among variables

26. Step 3: Research Problem, Question or Hypothesis
Questions to ask:
Is the problem or hypothesis clear and concise?
Is there a hypothesis, is it consistent with the lit review?
If quantitative, does the problem or hypothesis communicate the variables, type of research, and population?
If qualitative, is the initial problem reformulated?

27. Step 4: Methodology: Subjects, Participants, or Sources of Information
Participants will be described in this section
Some qualitative and analytical studies use documents, artifacts, pictures, and other sources of data that are not directly from people—these will be described here

28. Step 4: Methodology: Subjects, Participants, or Sources of Information
Questions to ask:
Is the population described adequately?
Is the sample of subjects and/or other sources of information clearly described?
Is the method of selecting the sample clear?
Could the method of selection affect results?
Are subjects likely to be motivated to give biased responses?

29. Step 5: Methodology: Instruments
Instruments or measures are devices that are used to gather information from subjects
Instruments can include tests, oral or written surveys, ratings, observation, and various archival and “unobtrusive” measures
Quantitative: credibility depends on validity and reliability
Qualitative: technical feature of instrument validity and reliability aren’t used, but the more general ideas of appropriateness of the inferences (validity) and error in collecting information (reliability) are still important

30. Step 5: Methodology: Instruments
Questions to ask:
Is evidence for validity and reliability clearly presented and adequate?
Is there a clear description of the instrument and how it was used
Is there a clear description of the procedures for collecting the information?
Is it likely that the subjects would fake their responses?
Are interviewers and observers trained?
If appropriate, what are the norms used to report percentile rank and other results?

31. Step 6: Methodology: Procedures
This subsection will indicate how subjects or participants were selected, how instruments were developed and administered, and how experimental treatments, if any, were conducted
A qualitative study will describe procedures the researcher used to gain entry into the field, the nature and length of observations and interviews, and how participants were approached
In this section, look for characteristics of the study design that might lead to erroneous interpretations of the data

32. Step 6: Methodology: Procedures
Questions to ask:
Are there any clear weaknesses in the design of the study?
Are the procedures for collecting information described fully?
Is it likely that the researcher is biased?

33. Step 7: Results Presents a summary of the data analysis
Quantitative: researchers often use inferential statistics to make probability statements about what is likely to be true
Qualitative: coding, triangulation

34. Step 7: Results Questions to ask: Are the findings presented clearly?
Is there appropriate use of tables, charts, and figures?
Is the # of subjects taken into consideration?
Is there sufficient descriptive information to interpret the results?
Are the results presented in relation to the research question?
If qualitative, are the results accompanied by illustrative quotes and specific instances?

35. Step 8: Discussion & Conclusions
Discussion of meaning of results; this interpretation is helpful to understand why certain results were obtained
Conclusions—summary statements of the findings and how the reseacher interprets them
Quantitative: generalizability of the findings to the larger population
Qualitative: transferability and comparability of the findings

36. Step 8: Discussion & Conclusions
Questions to ask:
Is the discussion based on the research problem and results?
Is there an adequate interpretation of the findings?
Is the interpretation separate from the results?
Are the results discussed in relation to previous studies?
Are limitations due to methodology included in the discussion?
Are the conclusions clearly stated and based on the results and discussion?
Are the conclusions reasonable? Do they go beyond the interpretation of the findings?
What is the generalizability of the findings? What factors would affect generalizability?