1. Utility

2. Utility Functions u Utility is a concept used by economists to describe consumer preferences. u Utility function is a function that assigns a real number to every possible consumption bundle, such that more-preferred bundles yield higher levels of utility.

3. Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves u An indifference curve contains equally preferred bundles. u Equal preference  same utility level. u Therefore, all bundles in an indifference curve have the same utility level.

4. Utility Functions & Indiff. Curves u Comparing all possible consumption bundles gives the complete collection of the consumer’s indifference curves, each with its assigned utility level. u This complete collection of indifference curves completely represents the consumer’s preferences.

5. Utility Functions u There is no unique utility function representation of a preference relation. u Suppose U(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 x 2 represents a preference relation. u Define V = U 2. u V preserves the same order as U and so represents the same preferences.

6. Utility Functions u Define W = 2U + 10. u W preserves the same order as U and V and so represents the same preferences.

7. Utility Functions u If –U is a utility function that represents a preference relation and – f is a strictly increasing function, u then V = f(U) is also a utility function representing that preference relation.

8. Goods, Bads and Neutrals u A good is a commodity unit which increases utility. u A bad is a commodity unit which decreases utility. u A neutral is a commodity unit which does not change utility.

9. Goods, Bads and Neutrals Utility Water x’ Units of water are goods Units of water are bads Around x’ units, a little extra water is a neutral. Utility function

10. Some Other Utility Functions and Their Indifference Curves u Consider V(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 + x 2 What do the indifference curves for this “perfect substitution” utility function look like?

11. Perfect Substitution Indifference Curves 5 5 9 9 13 x1x1 x2x2 x 1 + x 2 = 5 x 1 + x 2 = 9 x 1 + x 2 = 13 V(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 + x 2.

12. Perfect Substitution Indifference Curves 5 5 9 9 13 x1x1 x2x2 x 1 + x 2 = 5 x 1 + x 2 = 9 x 1 + x 2 = 13 All are linear and parallel. V(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 + x 2.

13. Some Other Utility Functions and Their Indifference Curves u Consider W(x 1,x 2 ) = min{x 1,x 2 }. What do the indifference curves for this “perfect complementarity” utility function look like?

14. Perfect Complementarity Indifference Curves x2x2 x1x1 45 o min{x 1,x 2 } = 8 3 5 8 3 5 8 min{x 1,x 2 } = 5 min{x 1,x 2 } = 3 W(x 1,x 2 ) = min{x 1,x 2 }

15. Perfect Complementarity Indifference Curves x2x2 x1x1 45 o min{x 1,x 2 } = 8 3 5 8 3 5 8 min{x 1,x 2 } = 5 min{x 1,x 2 } = 3 All are right-angled with vertices on a ray from the origin. W(x 1,x 2 ) = min{x 1,x 2 }

16. Some Other Utility Functions and Their Indifference Curves u Any utility function of the form U(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 a x 2 b with a > 0 and b > 0 is called a Cobb- Douglas utility function (very useful family of functions, as it exhibits nice properties and serves several purposes). u E.g. U(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 1/2 x 2 1/2 (a = b = 1/2) V(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 x 2 3 (a = 1, b = 3)

17. Cobb-Douglas Indifference Curves x2x2 x1x1 All curves are hyperbolic, asymptoting to, but never touching any axis.

18. Marginal Utilities u Marginal means “incremental”. u The marginal utility of commodity i is the rate-of-change of total utility as the quantity of commodity i consumed changes (and the quantities of all other goods are unaltered); i.e.

19. Marginal Utilities u E.g. if U(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 1/2 x 2 2 then

20. Marginal Utilities and Marginal Rates-of-Substitution  The general equation for an indifference curve is U(x 1,x 2 )  k, a constant. Totally differentiating this identity gives

21. Marginal Utilities and Marginal Rates-of-Substitution rearranged is

22. Marginal Utilities and Marginal Rates-of-Substitution rearranged is And This is the MRS.

23. Marg. Utilities & Marg. Rates-of- Substitution; An example u Suppose U(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 x 2. Then

24. Marg. Utilities & Marg. Rates-of- Substitution; An example MRS(1,8) = - 8/1 = -8 MRS(6,6) = - 6/6 = -1. x1x1 x2x2 8 6 16 U = 8 U = 36 U(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 x 2 ;

25. Marginal Rates-of-Substitution u The MRS corresponds to the slope of the indifference curve at a given consumption bundle and measures the rate at which the consumer is willing to substitute a small amount of good 1 for good 2 in order to attain the same utility level, i.e. stay in the same indifference curve.

26. Monotonic Transformations & Marginal Rates-of-Substitution u Applying a monotonic transformation to a utility function representing a preference relation simply creates another utility function representing the same preference relation. u What happens to marginal rates-of- substitution when a monotonic transformation is applied?

27. Monotonic Transformations & Marginal Rates-of-Substitution u For U(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 x 2 the MRS = - x 2 /x 1. u Create V = U 2 ; i.e. V(x 1,x 2 ) = x 1 2 x 2 2. What is the MRS for V? which is the same as the MRS for U.

28. Monotonic Transformations & Marginal Rates-of-Substitution u More generally, if V = f(U) where f is a strictly increasing function, then So MRS is unchanged by a positive monotonic transformation.