1. The Scientific Method Today’s agenda: 1.Let’s hear your ideas: What did you come up with, and how? 2.How do scientists do their work? Variations on the process. 3.Where do we find scientific information?

2. What did you come up with? 1.Each of you take 10 minutes or so and tell us about your idea. 2.What is the question you want to explore? 3.How did you formulate the question, and why?

3. How science is classically carried out is called the “scientific method.” It’s a process of experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way. The scientific method will help you to focus your question, construct a hypothesis, design, execute, and evaluate your experiment. The process of doing science

4. Steps of the scientific method http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_scientific_method.shtml

5. Ask a question: The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where? In order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about something that you can test or measure, preferably with a number. Do background research: Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you’ll want to do a library and Internet search to help you find the best way to do things and insure that you aren’t repeating what’s already been done. http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_scientific_method.shtml

6. Construct a hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work: “If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen.” You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure and, of course, your hypothesis should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question. Test your hypothesis by doing an experiment: Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same. You should also repeat your experiment several times to make sure that the first results weren’t just an accident. http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_scientific_method.shtml

7. Analyze your data and draw a conclusion: Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if your hypothesis is true or false. Scientists often find that their hypothesis was false, and in such cases they will construct a new hypothesis starting the entire process of the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was true, they may want to test it again in a new way. Communicate your results: To complete your project you communicate your results to others. This is done by presenting your findings orally or by means of a poster at a scientific meeting, and eventually publishing the work in a scientific journal. http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-rojects/project_scientific_method.shtml

8. What about scientific approaches that do not involve experimentation? 1. Observation (animal behavior, environmental change, etc.). 2. Description (discovery of a new a species of organism). 3. Modeling (using the computer to explore scenarios, options). 4. Morphology (paleontology, etc.). 5. Microscopic examination (new pathogens, etc.). 6. Others?

9. Faculty members here at SAFS were asked for input into how they do science. Here are some of their replies. Interestingly, none used the word “experiment.” From Ray Hilborn: As Thomas Huxley once said, "skepticism is the highest of duties; blind faith the one unpardonable sin."

10. Here’s another one: From Trevor Branch: I synthesize everything to try to understand the whole. So, given a topic, I read every paper I can find, gather all data sources together, and try to talk to/email every key scientist in the field. Then I write a review paper, write a paper on what all the data say together, or build a model to explain all the data I collected.

11. Here’s another one: From Tim Essington: I work by combining field observations with quantitative models (often using a comparative approach in lieu of experimentation), testing multiple hypotheses, to reveal patterns in nature and likely drivers therein. Lately I've been applying these approaches to study large (global) scale patterns in fisheries and to evaluate ecological responses to policy instruments.

12. And another: From Bob Naiman: The essence of science as I practice it is “discovery.” I try to let an ecosystem (river, riparian zone, or watershed) tell me how it works ecologically to produce fish, retain its long-term vitality, and exhibit resilience to change. It is the discovery, through research activities, that allows me to tell a better and better "story" as time goes by. After all, it is a good and accurate story that folks remember.

13. Where do we find original scientific information? 1. Peer-reviewed journals. 2. Single-authored books. 3. Symposia or other edited, multi-authored books. 4. Master’s theses and doctoral dissertations. 5. Agency reports (sometimes called “gray literature”). 6. Websites and other electronic sources. 7. Others? Each form of communication has strengths and weak- nesses; it is important to understand their differences.

14. Assignments for Monday: 1. Think more about your question and come to class with a new or more focused statement, expressed in the form of a hypothesis. 2. Find a website or other public source of data that pertains to the hypothesis. Be creative! 3. Read the book, Chapter 1, pages 5–26.

15. The books are lonely. Go to the library, where they live, look at them, open them, touch them, and be glad that they exist. We are lucky to have such a great library!