1. Computer Architecture Part II-D: Survey of Processor Architecture

2. Microprocessors in the Market What’s the difference?

3. Areas of Development Below are technologies which can be improved in CPU design:  System bus speed  Internal and external clock frequency  Casing  Cooling system  Instruction set  Material used for the die End result: enhance speed of the CPU and the system in general

4. The System Bus Conduit for moving data between the processor and other system components CPU Caches System Bus Memory I/O Devices: Controllers Adapters Disks Displays Keyboards Networks Bus

5. System Bus Speeds Intel Pentium Core 2 Quad/Duo have CPU clocks of 2.66/3 GHz with system bus speeds of 1066/1333 MHz AMD: 2 nd Generation Opteron (dual core) processor has clock speed of 1.8 GHz with a 1000 MHz system bus

6. Split Clock Frequency Internal clock frequency  Speed of data processing inside the CPU External clock frequency  Speed of data transfer to and from the CPU via the system bus Intel 486DX2 25/50 was first to use clock doubling to implement split clock system

7. The GHz Race in CPU Frequency June 1999: API (Alpha Processor Inc.) demonstrated a 1 GHz chip March 2000: AMD released Athlon 1 GHz; within days Intel released 1 GHz Pentium III 2002: AMD, Intel uses 0.13 micron technology  Athlon XP 2200+ (June)  Pentium 4 2.53 GHz (May), mobile Pentium 4 2 GHz (June) 2004  Pentium 4: 3.6 GHz, 800 MHz system bus  AMD: 3200+, 2.2 GHz, 400 MHz : Same as 2003 32-bit CPUs  now concentrating on 64-bit 2005  Pentium 4: 3.73 – 3.8 GHz, 800/1066 MHz system bus  AMD: Same as 2004

8. Is Moore’s Law Dead? Intel’s vision of a 10 GHz CPU cannot be realized due to heat problems Some have pushed speed limits through high-end cooling systems Both Intel and AMD no longer concentrating on speed as performance driver SIA says “Moore’s Law is still going strong after 40 years”

9. Micron Technology A micron is 1 millionth of a meter  Human hair strand about 100 microns Objective: thinner wires  Allow CPU to operate at lower voltage  Results in CPU generating less heat and operating at higher speeds Currently, processors are in the range of 0.065 microns (65 nm) Intel’s Roadmap: 45  15 nm

10. Micron Technology Through the Years

11. Thinner Wires = Increased Transistors 8086/8088 22,000 286 128,000 386DX/386SX 250,000 486SX/486DX 486DX2/486DX4 1,200,000 Pentium, Cyrix AMD K5, MMX 3,100,000 AMD K6 8,800,000 Athlon 1.4 GHz 37,000,000 Pertium 4 42,000,000

12. The Switch to Copper Aluminum limits making chips smaller Copper is a good choice because it  is a better conductor  consumes less energy, and  takes up less space than aluminum Copper allowed processors to boost speeds to the GHz range IBM pioneered the use of copper on September 1, 1998 (IBM Power PC 740/750)

13. PC on a Chip Integrates a number of key components into one chip Result: The chip replaces dozen or so separate chips (memory, FPU, graphics, video, etc.) Applications: PDAs, cellphones, set-top boxes, embedded processors, etc.

14. Impact of PC-on-a-Chip Smaller and quieter desktops Battery of devices lasts longer because of the low power drain Proliferation of information appliances

15. CPU Receptacle ZIF  Zero Insertion Force socket - type of socket designed for easy insertion of chips that have high density of pins  Socket 7 - popular implementation of ZIF

16. CPU Receptacle Slot 1  Consists of receptacle on the motherboard that holds an Intel Single Edge Contact (SEC) cartridge  Cartridge may contain up to two CPUs and an L2 cache (runs at half the speed of CPU) and plugs into 242-pin receptacle  Started with Pentium II

17. CPU Receptacle A Pentium II mounted on Slot 1

18. CPU Receptacle Slot 2  An enhanced Slot 1  Uses 330-pin SEC  Holds up to four CPUs  L2 cache runs at full processor speed  First used in Intel's Pentium II Xeon

19. CPU Receptacle AMD’s Slot A  Receptacle on motherboard for K7 CPU  Physically similar to Slot 1, but has different electrical requirements

20. Casing: FC-PGA (Flip-Chip) Traditional Wiring Flip-Chip (IBM)

21. Advantages of FC-PGA Greater # of I/O pins available Shorter electrical connections Better manufacturing efficiency

22. Casing: FC-LGA Bottom view of LGA/BGA-based CPULGA Socket 775

23. Advantages of FC-LGA Lower voltage used (less distance traveled, reduced signal loss) Less heat dissipation

24. Cache Works as buffer between CPU and memory Two types:  Internal  External

25. Levels of Cache Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 L1 L2 L3

26. Cache Placement Intel used to have external L2 cache Pentium Pro  Internal but CPU and L2 cache are separate  Result: larger chip that requires a larger socket

27. Overclocking Going beyond recommended clock frequency settings 3 method of overclocking  System bus frequency  CPU frequency multiplier  Change both of the above Some CPUs have locked frequencies

28. Overclocking: How to... Done through BIOS program Older systems require motherboard jumpers Some motherboards (e.g. ASUS TX97) contain jumper codes

29. Overclocking Issues Heat! Can main memory cope? Will the software still work?

30. Cooling Systems CPUs get hotter as they get faster Developed to keep the CPU from overheating Sophisticated cooling systems allow more reliable CPU operation

31. Liquid Nitrogen: Extremely Cool! CPU: Pentium 4 (Northwood) Date: Christmas 2003

32. The CPU Gets Watered Down

33. Multimedia Processing Multimedia applications require geometric transformation  Re-computation of location and size of an image to determine new position  Deals with FP FPU handles all real number computations Drawing landscapes (e.g. games) involves lots of computations and CPU may not handle it as fast as the player could react

34. Ways of Handling Multimedia Speed up the CPU Improve the CPU’s FPU by adding more pipelines Use high-end 3D graphics cards Add new multimedia instructions

35. Multimedia Innovations in CPUs MMX 3DNow! SSE

36. MMX Introduced 1995 in the Pentium processor Had 57 new instructions for 3D graphics Introduced SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data) instructions: technique that processes more than one integer simultaneously Problems:  Only works with integers  CPU can only work with either MMX or FPU, not both simultaneously because they share registers

37. 3DNow! Introduced summer of 1998 in the AMD K6-2 Characteristics  Supports SIMD instructions  Improved handling of numbers Successful!  Integrated in Windows, games, and drivers  Does not use the same registers

38. SSE Introduced in Pentium III (Katmai) 500 MHz as Intel’s response to 3DNow! Characteristics  8 new 128-bit registers (can hold four 32-bit #s)  Has Streaming SIMD Extensions  50 new instructions enabling simultaneous advanced calculations of more FP with a single instruction  New Media Instructions designed for coding and decoding MPEGs

39. Problems with SSE Pipelines can only handle two 32-bit numbers at a time To take advantage of 128-bit registers, FPU pipeline should have been doubled (would have pushed back release date of Katmai) Potentially, it could have enhanced 3D graphics since registers can handle four 32-bit numbers at a time

40. SSE Enhancements SSE2  Started in Pentium 4  Has 144 new instructions (since SSE)  Data width now 64 bits SSE3  13 additional SIMD instructions (since SSE2)  New instructions primarily designed to improve thread synchronization and specific application areas such as media and gaming Supplemental SSE3 (Core 2)  SSE4

41. Other CPU Innovations Data width  Internal: How many bits can the CPU process simultaneously?  External: How many bits can the CPU receive simultaneously for processing Superscalar architecture Superpipelined architecture Superscalar processing

42. Intel Corporation Produced biggest impact on microprocessor technology Main line of business is CPU but also has other hardware products (e.g. motherboards)

43. Short History of Intel 1968: Birth of Intel  Started in memory business  First product was 64-bit memory 1970s: Increase in market share Early 1980s: Japanese eats up memory market with 16 - 256 KB chips 1984: Business slowing down  “Get us out of memory!” 1986: Exited from memory due to success of 80386

44. Intel Processor Time Line 1971: 4004 Intel’s first microprocessor (108 KHz, 4 bit bus width) 1978: 8086 First 16-bit CPU from Intel 1979: 8088 Reengineered CPU to fit existing 8-bit hardware 1982: 286 16-bit processor Optimized Instruction handling 1985: 386 First 32-bit CPU (32-bit system bus) 1988: 386SX Cheaper version of the 386DX 1989: 486 Built in math co-processor L1 cache on-chip 2

45. Intel Processor Time Line 486SX Discount chip No math co-processor 486DX4 Triple the clock speed From 25 MHz to 75 MHz 33 MHz to 100 MHz 1993: Pentium Classic Superscalar (5x 486DX-33 MHz) Width of system bus: 64 bit Speed of system bus: 60 to 66 MHz Initially produced a lot of heat Jan 8, 1997: Pentium MMX New set of instructions for multimedia 32 KB L1 cache Nov 1, 1995: Pentium Pro RISC Processor 32 bit processing L2 cache is built in May 7, 1997: Pentium II (Klamath) 512 KB L2 L1 cache of 32 KB 3

46. Intel Processor Time Line Jan 26, 1998: Deschutes 333 MHz 0.25 micron technology 1Q 1998: Celeron (Covington) Pentium II without the L2 cache 1998: Celeron (Mendocino) 333 MHz 128 KB L2 internal cache July 26, 1998: Pentium II Xeon 450 MHz Custom SRAM Different L2 caches: 512, 1/2 MB Can have 4 - 8 Xeons in one server 1999: Pentim III (Katmai) Enhanced MMX2 graphics instructions 1999: Pentium III Xeon (Tanner) 2001: Itanium (formerly Merced) 64-bit CPU 0.18 micron technology > 25 million transistors 2000: Pentium 4 7 th Generation 0.18 micron technology Core (2005)

47. Current Intel CPU Innovations Hyperthreading Multi-core  Core  Core 2 (64-bit architecture)

48. Intel’s First 64-Bit Chip (Server): Itanium Was known as IA-64 (but IA-32 compatible) EPIC (Explicitly Parallel Instruction Computing) processor  Enables up to 20 operations/clock cycle  Employs branch prediction and speculation Three levels of cache: 2 MB / 4 MB L3 cache, 96K L2 cache, and 32K L1 cache 128 integer registers, 128 FP registers

49. Itanium 2 Available from 1 - 1.66 GHz Internal L3 cache (1.5 MB, 3 MB, 4 MB, 6 MB, or 9 MB) System bus: 400/533/667 MHz, 128-bits wide 0.13 microns, 592 million transistors Next version (“Montecito”) has 1.72 billion transistors, 26 MB on- die cache, 90 nm

50. Current Intel CPU Lineup Mobile  Centrino (Core and Core 2) Desktop  Core 2 Extreme  Core 2 (now used in Apple Mac Mini) Servers and workstations  Xeon (now used in Apple Mac Pro)  Itanium 2

51. AMD (Advanced Micro Devices) Incorporated in May 1969 Challenging Intel even before Pentium-class processors Offered their own technology and cannot be considered as producing clones Achieved increased market sales starting with K6 and K6-II

52. AMD Series (From Pentium Class) K5  Similar to the classic Pentiums  16 KB L1 cache and no MMX  Not very impressive but much cheaper than similar Pentium models K6  Technology brought in from NexGen; put AMD back in business  32 KB L1 cache & MMX  Pentium compatible but performed better than MMX

53. AMD Series (From Pentium Class) K6-II: Chomper  0.25 micron, system bus speed of 100 MHz  Introduced 3DNow!  Also MMX-compatible; really challenged the Pentium II and led to low-cost Celeron K6-III: Sharptooth  Three levels of cache: L1 and L2 are in CPU; L3 is on motherboard up to 1 MB; 133 system bus  Was not as successful as the K6-II K7: Athlon

54. Last of AMD’s 32-Bit Processors Athlon XP  Intel played catch-up to the Athlon XP on many occasions, but now stagnant in 32-bit computing  Model 3200+ has a 2.2 GHz CPU, 3 FP pipelines, 128 KB of L1 cache, 512 KB L2 cache, system bus speed of 400 MHz, and 0.13 micron technology Sempron  Counterpart of Intel Celeron  Model 3300+ has 2 GHz CPU, 754-pins, 90 nm technology, 128 KB L2 cache

55. AMD’s 64-Bit Chips Varieties:  Athlon 64 (desktop)  Turion 64 (mobile)  Opteron (servers or workstations) Provides seamless transition to 64-bit System bus runs at processor speed through on-chip memory controller Lead the Itanium 2 on many benchmarks AMD formed a partnership with Sun

56. Current AMD 64-Bit CPU Innovations HyperTransport Dual core Direct Connect Architecture

57. Transmeta’s Crusoe Processor Transmeta’s founders include David Ditzel, Linus Torvalds, and Paul Allen released “Crusoe” in January 2000 Architectural achievements  Only 25% the number of transistors compared to current Pentiums  Needs only 1 or 2 watts of power for 400 MHz or 700 MHz chips running at full speed  Much less heat dissipated but can compete with same category Intel and AMD chips

58. How Crusoe Pulled It Off Efficient instruction set bears no resemblance to x86 Takes advantage of latest and best in hardware design Software layer (code morphing software) in flash ROM translates x86 commands

59. Current Transmeta Processors Crusoe TM5900  667 MHz – 1 GHz CPU speed  128 KB L1, 512 KB L2  133 MHz system bus  0.13 microns Efficeon TM8800  Up to 1.7 GHz  128 KB L1 instruction cache 64 KB L1 data cache, 1 MB L2  400 MHz system bus

60. The PowerPC Microprocessor Originally designed by Apple, IBM, and Motorola Based on IBM POWER architecture used in IBM RS/6000 (RISC based) Provides seamless transition to 64-bit The PowerPC G5 is used in Apple iMac G5 2.7 GHz CPU speed, 1.35 GHz system bus, 512 KB on-chip L2 cache

61. Sun UltraSparc IV+ 2 nd generation dual core processor design (1368 pins FC- LGA) 64-bit CPU, 90 nm, 295 million transistors CPU speeds of 1.95 / 2.1 GHz 2 MB L2 cache, 32 MB off-chip On-chip memory controller CMT (Chip Multi-Threading) with 2 threads per processor 14-stage non-stalling pipeline 4-way superscalar Runs Solaris, Linux, FreeBSD, and other UNIX versions

62. Sun UltraSparc T1 Available in 4-, 6- or 8-core 64 bits, 90 nm 4-way multithreaded core 14-stage non-stalling pipeline 4 integrated memory controllers 16 KB instruction, 8 KB data L1 cache per core, 3 MB unified L2 cache Available in 1 and 1.2 GHz Low power (72 – 79 watts)

63. Multiprocessor Systems Combines two or more CPUs of the same brand and model Allows systems to scale up Forms an N-way system

64. Future Trends In Dec. 1997, the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA) provided details about future requirements of microprocessors. Attempts to continue the pace predicted by Moore’s Law

65. 1999 SIA Roadmap for Microprocessors

66. International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors