1. Teaching Learning Principles and Practices
Learning Theories and Models
Unit – 3
Sohail Sajid
Principal
New Life College of Nursing
RN, DWA,DTA, Specialized in CHN, Post RN BScN

2. Objectives Define learning Discuss learning process
Discuss learning theories
Discuss Kolb’S and Tyler learning model
Analyze learning theories and models in daily learning activities
Compare teaching learning strategies which enhance learning

3. Learning
When an individual gains knowledge, skill and understanding the subject learning changes attitude and behavior it is known as learning.
Learning is considered as a change in a person has caused by experience.
(Basanvanthappa)

4. Learning Process
To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. Learning also may involve a change in attitude or behavior. Children learn to identify objects at an early age; teenagers may learn to improve study habits; and adults can learn to solve complex problems.
The challenge for the aviation instructor is to understand how people learn, and more importantly, to be able to apply that knowledge to the learning environment.

5. Teaching Learning Process
Teaching learning process is a transaction or a complex cooperative and personal relation between faculty and student.
(Basanvanthappa)

6. Learning Theories
Learning theory may be described as a body of principles advocated by psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Various branches of learning theory are used in formal training programs to improve and accelerate the learning process. Key concepts such as desired learning outcomes, objectives of the training, and depth of training also apply.

7. Learning Theories
When properly integrated, learning principles, derived from theories, can be useful to aviation instructors and developers of instructional programs.
Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how information is absorbed, processed, and retained during learning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influence

8. Learning Theories
Behaviorism
Cognitivism
Constructivism

9. Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a worldview that assumes a learner is essentially passive, responding to environmental stimuli. The learner starts off as a clean schedule and behavior is shaped through positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement.
Both positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior will happen again.

10. Behaviorism
In contrast, punishment (both positive and negative) decreases the likelihood that the antecedent behavior will happen again.
Positive indicates the application of a stimulus; Negative indicates the withholding of a stimulus. Learning is therefore defined as a change in behavior in the learner.

11. Representations of the Learning Process
Behaviorism
Stimulus-Response
Reinforced Behavior
Antecedent Behavior Consequence
Sequenced knowledge and skills presented in logical limited steps

12. Relevant Frameworks Behaviorism
Programmed Instruction (logical presentation of content, clear responses, immediate knowledge of correctness)

13. Key Principles: Behaviorism
Learning happens when a correct response is demonstrated following the presentation of a specific environmental stimulus.
Emphasis is on observable and measurable behaviors

14. Goal of Instruction: Behaviorism
Communicate or transfer behaviors representing knowledge and skills to the learner (does not consider mental processing)
Instruction is to obtain the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus.
Learner must know how to implement the proper response as well as the conditions under which the response is made.
Instruction utilizes consequences and reinforcement of learned behaviors

15. Critiques on Behaviorism
Behaviorism does not account for all kinds of  learning, since it disregards the activities of  the mind.
Behaviorism does not explain some learning--such as the recognition of new language patterns by young children--for which there is no reinforcement mechanism.
Research has shown that animals adapt their reinforced patterns to new information. For instance, a rat can shift its behavior to respond to changes in the layout of a hole it had previously mastered through reinforcements.

16. Cognitivism
Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities – opening the “black box” of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as diagram or symbolic mental constructions.

17. Representations of the Learning Process
Cognitivism
Cognitivism Learning Perspective
Information Processing
Schema (Plan)
Mental Models

18. Relevant Frameworks Cognitivism
Events of Instruction (Conditions of Learning)

19. Key Principles: Cognitivism
Learning is a change of knowledge state
Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner.
Learner is viewed as an active participant in the learning process
Emphasis is on the building blocks of knowledge (e.g. identifying prerequisite relationships of content)
Emphasis on structuring, organizing and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing

20. Goal of Instruction: Cognitivism
Communicate or transfer knowledge in the most efficient, effective manner (mind-independent, can be mapped onto learners)
Focus of instruction is to create learning or change by encouraging the learner to use appropriate learning strategies
Learning results when information is stored in memory in an organized, meaningful way.
Teachers/designers are responsible for assisting learners in organizing information in an optimal way so that it can be readily learned

21. Constructivism
Constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Knowledge is constructed based on personal experiences and hypotheses of the environment. Learners continuously test these hypotheses through social negotiation. Each person has a different interpretation and construction of knowledge process. The learner is not a blank schedule but brings past experiences and cultural factors to a situation.

22. Representations of the Learning Process
Constructivism
Inquiry-based
Discovery learning

23. Relevant Frameworks Constructivism Cognitive Apprenticeship
Cognitive Flexibility
Situated Learning
Zone of Proximal Development

24. Key Principles: Constructivism
Learners build personal interpretation of the world based on experiences and interactions
Knowledge is fixed in the context in which it is used (authentic tasks in meaningful realistic settings)
Create original and situation-specific understandings by "assembling" knowledge from different sources appropriate to the problem at hand (flexible use of knowledge)

25. Goal of Instruction: Constructivism
Build personal interpretations of the world based on individual experiences and interactions (constantly open to change, cannot achieve a predetermined, "correct" meaning, knowledge emerges in relevant contexts)
Learning is an active process of constructing rather than acquiring knowledge.
Instruction is a process of supporting knowledge construction rather than communicating knowledge
Do not structure learning for the task, but engage learner in the actual use of the tools in real world situations.

26. The Experiential Learning Cycle
David Kolb published his learning styles model in 1984 from which he developed his learning style inventory.
Kolb's experiential learning theory works on two levels: a four stage cycle of learning and four separate learning styles.  Much of Kolb’s theory is concerned with the learner’s internal cognitive processes.

27. Cont
Kolb states that learning involves the achievement of abstract concepts that can be applied flexibly in a range of situations.  In Kolb’s theory, the force for the development of new concepts is provided by new experiences.
“Learning is the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984).

28. The Experiential Learning Cycle

29. Description cont
1. Concrete Experience - (a new experience of situation is encountered, or a reinterpretation of existing experience). 2. Reflective Observation ( the new experience of particular importance are any inconsistencies between experience and understanding). 3. Abstract Conceptualization (Reflection gives rise to a new idea, or a modification of an existing abstract concept). 4. Active Experimentation (the learner applies them to the world around them to see what results).

30. Stages of Four Cycles
Effective learning is seen when a person progresses through a cycle of four stages. (1) having a concrete experience followed by (2) observation of and reflection on that experience which leads to (3) the formation of abstract concepts (analysis) and generalizations (conclusions) which are then (4) used to test hypothesis in future situations, resulting in new experiences.

31. Stages of Four Cycles

32. Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model?
According to Kolb, “Knowledge results from the combination of grasping experience and transforming it.” In his model, there are four distinct segments to learning:
Description of Concrete experience
Reflections
Generalizations/Principles/Theories
Testing and Application

33. Applying Kolb’s Model to Your Essay
Description of Concrete experience
Discuss your experiences with the way your body reacts to specific types of foods, namely proteins, carbohydrates, and fats, and how these contribute to your overall health.

34. Reflections
Describe your feelings about your experiences and how your thoughts, attitudes and observations developed through the reflective process.  For instance, as you experimented with different foods, how did your thoughts change about your nutrition plan? Did you grow to like foods that you didn’t like before? Explain.

35. Generalizations/Principles/Theories
Explain specific theories and principles of the physiology of proteins, carbohydrates and fats and how they support your knowledge of the topic in the area of nutrition and health. Discuss what your health care provider explained to you about this topic.

36. Testing and Application
Discuss how you tested the theories about protein, carbohydrates and fat. Did applying a particular principle bring about the desired outcome? Why or why not? You can add more to this discussion by writing about how more recent experiences have impacted your generalizations, principles and theories.

37. Tyler learning Model
The Tyler Model is often referred to as the ‘objective model’ because of it’s objective approach to educational evaluation.
It emphasizes consistency among objectives, learning experiences, and outcomes.
Curriculum objectives indicate both behavior to be developed and area of content to be applied (Keating, 2006)

38. Tyler’s Four Principles of Teaching
Defining Appropriate Learning Objectives
 Establishing Useful Learning Experiences
Organizing Learning Experiences to Have a Maximum Cumulative Effect
 Evaluating the Curriculum and Revising Those Aspects That Did Not Prove to be Effective (Keating, 2006)

39. Teaching Strategies Which Enhance Learning
Active Learning 
Collaborative/Cooperative Learning 
Critical Thinking
Discussion Strategies
Experiential Learning
Humor in the Classroom 
Interdisciplinary Teaching 
Learner-Centered Teaching 

40. Teaching Strategies Which Enhance Learning
Learning Communities 
Lecture Strategies 
Problem-Based Learning
Service Learning 
Social Networking Tools 
Teaching with Cases 
Team Teaching 
Writing Assignments 

41. Learning Strategies which Enhance Teaching
1. Have students lead conferences with each other and with you. When students take the lead, their interest and confidence rises. 2. When you are delivering instruction, pause frequently and have students write a summary of what you have said in the previous 3-5 minutes. 3. Brainstorm ideas. 4. Allow students opportunities to independently read selections of their own choosing.

42. Learning Strategies which Enhance Teaching
5. Ask the entire class an interesting general question that relates to the topic under study. 6. Have students participate in small group Round Robin activities. 7. Have students make flashcards and use them to study together. 8. Ask students to model the right way to do something or answer a question.

43. Learning Strategies which Enhance Learning
9.  If your subject matter lends itself, have students role play in brief sketches.
10. Offer students opportunities to learn their vocabulary words and other facts in puzzles of various types. 
11. Have students sit in a circle. 
12. Hold sporting events. Divide your students into teams,

44. Learning Strategies which Enhance Learning
13. Stage a fishbowl question and discussion group. 14. Ask students to create questions that they believe could possibly stump their classmates. 15. Give students a brief passage and have them read it silently. Then ask them to comment on the passage or answer questions about it.

45. Any Question

46. Thank you