1. Introduction to Political Research

2. What is Social Research?

3. It Is NOT… Authority Overestimate expertise May not all agree
Not knowledgeable
Tradition
Common Sense
Media Myth
Personal Experience
Overgeneralize
Selective observation
Premature closure
Halo effect
NO MAGAZINES!

4. Social Research IS… Theory Principles Outlooks Ideas (METHODOLOGY)
Along with a collection of specific practices, techniques and strategies
Empirical
Based on observation or experience
Falsifiable

5. The Old Reliable Scientific Method…
Scientific Method is utilized not only in hard science research, but in social research, too.
Academic Journals vs. Magazine Articles
Difference?

6. Academic Journals vs. Magazines
Difficult to get published
Peer Reviewed
Very Little Money
Publishing enhances professional status/career prospects
Magazines
NOT peer reviewed
Money attached for reporters to publish
Even credible magazines such as Time, Newsweek, and U.S. News and World Report fall into this category

7. The Research Process Select Topic Focus Your Research
Design Your Study
Collect Data
Analyze Data
Interpret Data
Inform Community

8. Types of Research Applied Research Basic Research
Refute or support theories
These theories explain the social world and are already established
Applied Research
Address a specific concern or problem
Evaluations
Action Research
Social Impact Assessment
Examples???

9. What is the Purpose of Research
EXPLORE
DESCRIBE
EXPLAIN

10. Exploratory Research
What lies did Bill Clinton tell about the Lewinsky Scandal?
What led up to the uncovering of the Lewinsky affair in 1998?

11. Descriptive Research
What type of relationship ultimately led to the impeachment of Bill Clinton?
What were the circumstances surrounding the trial?

12. Explanatory Research
What were the ramifications of the Clinton impeachment?
Did the impeachment set a precedent?
In retrospect, should Clinton have been impeached?

13. Time Dimension in Research
Cross-Sectional Research
-one fixed point in time
Longitudinal Research
-a moving picture, more at one time (time series)
-panel study, cohort study, case study
Which is better?

14. -experiments, surveys, content analyses, existing statistics
Data Collection
Quantitative Data Collection
-experiments, surveys, content analyses, existing statistics
Qualitative Data Collection
-field research, historical- comparative research
Which is better?

15. The Scientific Method The scientific method:
Findings are based on objective, systematic observation and verified through public inspection of methods and results.
The ultimate goal is to use verifiable results to construct causal theories that explain why phenomena behave the way they do.

16. The Scientific Method
Empirical verification
Falsifiability
Non-normative research
Transmissible
Empirical generalization
Explanatory
Prediction
Probabilistic explanation
Parsimony
What are the most important components of the scientific method?

17. The Scientific Method The method uses a common structure:
Research question
A question that asks why or how a political phenomena behaves
Theory
A body of statements that synthesize knowledge of and explain phenomena
Hypotheses
The terms to be tested through the collection and analysis of empirical data
Empirical analysis
Confirms or refutes hypotheses and theory and answers research questions

18. The Scientific Method Many different approaches to scientific work
Two groups of techniques:
Deductive
Arguments are proven to be true through the use of several logical statements in which a conclusion is true because the underlying premises are true.
Inductive
One draws an inference from a set of propositions and observations.

19. Is Political Science a Science?
There are two general objections to classifying political science as a science:
Practical objections
Philosophical objections

20. Is Political Science a Science?
Practical objections:
Political behavior is extremely complex.
People can intentionally mislead researchers.
Measurement is often subjective.
Data can be difficult or impossible to attain.

21. Is Political Science a Science?
Philosophical objections:
The reasoning behind political behavior cannot be measured objectively.
The “facts” of political phenomena are constructed or conditioned by the observer’s perceptions, experiences, and opinions.

22. Political Science Discipline
The discipline has changed over time.
Traditional approach:
Period between 1930 and 1960—primarily described the practice of government
Empirical approach:
Followed early survey work in the 1950s—led to the widespread application of statistical methods— explanatory research

23. Political Science Discipline
The discipline has changed over time.
Normative pushback:
In response to empiricism—focused on questions of morality and policy issues that are relevant to real- world political discussions
Debate between empirical and normative research has cooled since the 1980s

24. Social Theory
Social Theory is carefully constructed and debated and organizes knowledge into a compact, manageable framework.
Seeks more than to pass blame, but rather, to explain.
Explains recurring patterns
Explains for aggregates
State a probability, chance, or tendency for events to occur

25. Theory Theory is broken down into concepts
An idea expressed as a symbol or in words
Examples…
Gender roles
Sexism
Urban Sprawl

26. Concept Clusters
In research, concept clusters help to group together like topics.
Example:
In developing a study to determine why certain people obtain higher education, concepts like “race,” “income,” “social environment,” etc. are utilized.

27. Concepts: Concrete vs. Abstract
Concrete Concepts can be felt and are often times tangible. (casting a ballot)
Abstract Concepts are not tangible and often more complex. (size)

28. Theory 1. Direction of Reasoning 2. Social Reality
3. Forms of Explanation
4. Overall Framework (Assumptions)

29. Theoretical Approaches
Deductive Approach
General to a specific case
Theory to Empirical Findings
Problems?
Inductive Approach
Empirical Patterns to a Theory
Could be referred to as grounded theory
Problems?

30. Grounded Theory Building a theory from “the ground up”
Inductive Approach--More Qualitative in Nature
Tries to make sense of evidence

31. Ranges of Theory Empirical Generalization
-summarizes a pattern of behavior
-least abstract, very narrow range
-”More men then women pick engineering as a college major”
Middle-Range Theory
-more abstract as it builds an explanation
Theoretical Frameworks (Paradigms)
-very abstract; develop ways for looking at the social world

32. Levels of Theory Micro-Level Theory
-small slices of time, space, numbers
ex. A particular election, a select group
Meso-Level Theory
-intermediate level; ex. A movement
Macro-Level Theory
-larger aggregates; ex. An entire society

33. Prediction and Explanation
Every time I call my mother, the Chicago Cubs win their game that day.
Can this possibly be an acceptable explanation for the Cubs winning?

34. Causal Explanations 1. Temporal Order: Cause Before Effect
-Does the call cause the Cubs to win or
does the fact that the Cubs won cause
me to call my mother?
2. Association: A patterned way or an
appearance of a pattern.

35. Causal Explanation 3. Elimination of other Alternatives: Also
known as “spuriousness.” Perhaps I only
call my mom on days when I know the
Cubs have a weak opponent (only the
Reds) or are playing well (which is
never).
Control Variables are utilized to help eliminate spuriousness.

36. Positive-Negative
Positive relationship: higher value on cause variable leads to higher value on effect variable
Negative relationship: higher value on cause variable leads to lower value on effect variable, and vice versa

37. Positive and Negative Relationships
Positive: The more you study for Political Research, the more points you will earn on the exam.
Negative: The more you party, the less points you will earn on your Political Research exam.

38. Structural Explanations
A sequence of phrases or parts that comprises the whole
Example: Various social networks combining to form a whole
Used in network, sequence, and functional theory

39. Interpretive Explanations
Just as it sounds…
Interpretive explanations seek to understand different attributes and characteristics of the social environment.
Overall, interpretive explanations seek to “get a feel” for what occurs and why it occurs.

40. Major Approaches 1. Positivist Approach 2. Interpretive Approach
3. Critical Approach
4. Thank Goodness we are almost
through with Theory.

41. Positivist Approach Hard Facts A very “natural sciences” approach
Logical
Nomothetic
Replication (REMEMBER) is essential.

42. Interpretive Approach
Human social life is “qualitatively” different than the natural science/hard facts approach.
Ideas, beliefs, perceptions should be taken into account.
Ideographic—specific description

43. Critical Approach Puts “knowledge into action.”
Research is not value free; an agenda or a political or moral obligation often exists.

44. Common Pitfalls 1) Begging the Question 2) Circular Argument
3) Post Hoc Explanation

45. Review Aspect Type of Social Theory Direction Inductive or Deductive
Level
Micro, Meso, or Macro
Explanation
Causal, Interpretive, or Structural
Abstraction
Empirical Generalization, Middle Range, Framework, or Paradigm