1. WPI, MOHAMED ELTABAKH PARALLEL & DISTRIBUTED DATABASES 1

2. INTRODUCTION In centralized database: Data is located in one place (one server) All DBMS functionalities are done by that server Enforcing ACID properties of transactions Concurrency control, recovery mechanisms Answering queries In Distributed databases: Data is stored in multiple places (each is running a DBMS) New notion of distributed transactions DBMS functionalities are now distributed over many machines Revisit how these functionalities work in distributed environment 2

3. WHY DISTRIBUTED DATABASES Data is too large Applications are by nature distributed Bank with many branches Chain of retail stores with many locations Library with many branches Get benefit of distributed and parallel processing Faster response time for queries 3

4. PARALLEL VS. DISTRIBUTED DATABASES Distributed processing usually imply parallel processing (not vise versa) Can have parallel processing on a single machine 4 Similar but different concepts

5. PARALLEL VS. DISTRIBUTED DATABASES Parallel Databases: Assumptions about architecture Machines are physically close to each other, e.g., same server room Machines connects with dedicated high-speed LANs and switches Communication cost is assumed to be small Can shared-memory, shared-disk, or shared-nothing architecture 5

6. PARALLEL VS. DISTRIBUTED DATABASES Distributed Databases: Assumptions about architecture Machines can far from each other, e.g., in different continent Can be connected using public-purpose network, e.g., Internet Communication cost and problems cannot be ignored Usually shared-nothing architecture 6

7. PARALLEL DATABASE PROCESSING 7

8. DIFFERENT ARCHITECTURE Three possible architectures for passing information 8 Shared-memory Shared-disk Shared-nothing

9. 1- SHARED-MEMORY ARCHITECTURE Every processor has its own disk Single memory address-space for all processors Reading or writing to far memory can be slightly more expensive Every processor can have its own local memory and cache as well 9

10. 2- SHARED-DISK ARCHITECTURE Every processor has its own memory (not accessible by others) All machines can access all disks in the system Number of disks does not necessarily match the number of processors 10

11. 3- SHARED-NOTHING ARCHITECTURE Most common architecture nowadays Every machine has its own memory and disk Many cheap machines (commodity hardware) Communication is done through high- speed network and switches Usually machines can have a hierarchy Machines on same rack Then racks are connected through high- speed switches 11 Scales better Easier to build Cheaper cost

12. PARTITIONING OF DATA 12 To partition a relation R over m machines Range partitioning Hash-based partitioning Round-robin partitioning Shared-nothing architecture is sensitive to partitioning Good partitioning depends on what operations are common

13. PARALLEL SCAN σ c ( R ) Relation R is partitioned over m machines Each partition of R is around |R|/m tuples Each machine scans its own partition and applies the selection condition c If data are partitioned using round robin or a hash function (over the entire tuple) The resulted relation is expected to be well distributed over all nodes All partitioned will be scanned If data are range partitioned or hash-based partitioned (on the selection column) The resulted relation can be clustered on few nodes Few partitions need to be touched 13 Parallel Projection is also straightforward All partitions will be touched Not sensitive to how data is partitioned

14. PARALLEL DUPLICATE ELIMINATION If relation is range or hash-based partitioned Identical tuples are in the same partition So, eliminate duplicates in each partition independently If relation is round-robin partitioned Re-partition the relation using a hash function So every machine creates m partitions and send the i th partition to machine i machine i can now perform the duplicate elimination 14

15. PARALLEL SORTING Range-based Re-partition R based on ranges into m partitions Machine i receives all i th partitions from all machines and sort that partition The entire R is now sorted Skewed data is an issue Apply sampling phase first Ranges can be of different width Merge-based Each node sorts its own data All nodes start sending their sorted data (one block at a time) to a single machine This machine applies merge-sort technique as data come 15

16. DISTRIBUTED DATABASE 16

17. DEFINITIONS A distributed database (DDB) is a collection of multiple, logically interrelated databases distributed over a computer network. Distributed database system (DDBS) = DB + Communication 17

18. DISTRIBUTED DATABASES MAIN CONCEPTS Data are stored at several locations Each managed by a DBMS that can run autonomously Ideally, location of data is unknown to client Distributed Data Independence Distributed Transactions Clients can write Transactions regardless of where the affected data are located Big question: How to ensure the ACID properties Distributed Transactions??? 18

19. Transparent management of distributed, fragmented, and replicated data Improved reliability/availability through distributed transactions Improved performance Easier and more economical system expansion DISTRIBUTED DBMS PROMISES 19

20. TRANSPARENCY & DATA INDEPENDENCE Data distributed (with some replication) Transparently ask query: 20 SELECTENAME,SAL FROMEMP,ASG,PAY WHEREDUR > 12 ANDEMP.ENO = ASG.ENO ANDPAY.TITLE = EMP.TITLE

21. TYPES OF DISTRIBUTED DATABASES Homogeneous Every site runs the same type of DBMS Heterogeneous: Different sites run different DBMS (maybe even RDBMS and ODBMS) 21 Homogeneous DBs can communicate directly with each other Heterogeneous DBs communicate through gateway interfaces

22. MAIN ISSUES Data Layout Issues Data partitioning and fragmentation Data replication Query Processing and Distributed Transactions Distributed join Transaction atomicity using two-phase commit Transaction serializability using distributed locking 22

23. MAIN ISSUES Data Layout Issues Data partitioning and fragmentation Data replication Query Processing and Distributed Transactions Distributed join Transaction atomicity using two-phase commit Transaction serializability using distributed locking 23

24. FRAGMENTATION How to divide the data? Can't we just distribute relations? What is a reasonable unit of distribution? 24

25. FRAGMENTATION ALTERNATIVES – HORIZONTAL Stored in London Stored in Boston 25

26. FRAGMENTATION ALTERNATIVES – VERTICAL Stored in LondonStored in Boston Horizontal partitioning is more common 26

27. Completeness Decomposition of relation R into fragments R 1, R 2,..., R n is complete if and only if each data item in R can also be found in some R i Reconstruction (Lossless) If relation R is decomposed into fragments R 1, R 2,..., R n, then there should exist some relational operator  such that R =  1≤i≤n R i  Disjointness (Non-overlapping) If relation R is decomposed into fragments R 1, R 2,..., R n, and data item d i is in R j, then d i should not be in any other fragment R k (k ≠ j ). CORRECTNESS OF FRAGMENTATION 27

28. REPLICATION ALTERNATIVES 28

29. DATA REPLICATION Pros: Improves availability Disconnected (mobile) operation Distributes load Reads are cheaper Cons: N times more updates N times more storage Synchronous vs. asynchronous Synchronous: all replica are up-to-date Asynchronous: cheaper but delay in synchronization 29 Catalog Management Catalog is needed to keep track of the location of each fragment & replica Catalog itself can be centralized or distributed

30. MAIN ISSUES Data Layout Issues Data partitioning and fragmentation Data replication Query Processing and Distributed Transactions Distributed join Transaction atomicity using two-phase commit Transaction serializability using distributed locking 30

31. DISTRIBUTED JOIN R(X,Y) ⋈ S(Y,Z) Option 1: Send R to S’s location and join their Option 2: Send S to R’s location and join their Communication cost is expensive, too much data to send Is there a better option ??? Semi Join Bloom Join 31 R(X1,X2, …Xn, Y) S(Y, Z1, Z2,…, Zm) Stored in LondonStored in Boston Join based on R.Y = S.Y

32. SEMI-JOIN Send only S.Y column to R’s location Do the join based on Y columns in R’s location (Semi Join) Send the records of R that will join (without duplicates) to S’s location Perform the final join in S’s location 32 R(X1,X2, …Xn, Y) S(Y, Z1, Z2,…, Zm) Stored in LondonStored in Boston

33. IS SEMI-JOIN EFFECTIVE Depends on many factors: If the size of Y attribute is small compared to the remaining attributes in R and S If the join selectivity is high  is small If there are many duplicates that can be eliminated 33 R(X1,X2, …Xn, Y) S(Y, Z1, Z2,…, Zm) Stored in LondonStored in Boston

34. BLOOM JOIN Build a bit vector of size K in R’s location (all 0’s) For every record in R, use a hash function(s) based on Y value (return from 1 to K) Each function hashes Y to a bit in the bit vector. Set this bit to 1 Send the bit vector to S’s location S will use the same hash function(s) to hash its Y values If the hashing matched with 1’s in all its hashing positions, then this Y is candidate for Join Otherwise, not candidate for join Send S’s records having candidate Y’s to R’s location for join 34 0011…001

35. MAIN ISSUES Data Layout Issues Data partitioning and fragmentation Data replication Query Processing and Distributed Transactions Distributed join Transaction atomicity using two-phase commit Transaction serializability using distributed locking 35

36. TRANSACTIONS A Transaction is an atomic sequence of actions in the Database (reads and writes) Each Transaction has to be executed completely, and must leave the Database in a consistent state If the Transaction fails or aborts midway, then the Database is “rolled back” to its initial consistent state (before the Transaction began) 36 ACID Properties of Transactions

37. ATOMICITY IN DISTRIBUTED DBS One transaction T may touch many sites T has several components T1, T2, …Tm Each Tk is running (reading and writing) at site k How to make T is atomic ???? Either T1, T2, …, Tm complete or None of them is executed Two-Phase Commit techniques is used 37

38. TWO-PHASE COMMIT Phase 1 Site that initiates T is the coordinator When coordinator wants to commit (complete T), it sends a “prepare T” msg to all participant sites Every other site receiving “prepare T”, either sends “ready T” or “don’t commit T” A site can wait for a while until it reaches a decision (Coordinator will wait reasonable time to hear from the others) These msgs are written to local logs 38

39. TWO-PHASE COMMIT (CONT’D) Phase 2 IF coordinator received all “ready T” Remember no one committed yet Coordinator sends “commit T” to all participant sites Every site receiving “commit T” commits its transaction IF coordinator received any “don’t commit T” Coordinator sends “abort T” to all participant sites Every site receiving “abort T” commits its transaction These msgs are written to local logs 39 Straightforward if no failures happen In case of failure logs are used to ensure ALL are done or NONE Example 2: What if all sites in Phase 1 replied “ready T”, then one site crashed??? Example 1: What if one sites in Phase 1 replied “don’t commit T”, and then crashed???

40. MAIN ISSUES Data Layout Issues Data partitioning and fragmentation Data replication Query Processing and Distributed Transactions Distributed join Transaction atomicity using two-phase commit Transaction serializability using distributed locking 40

41. DATABASE LOCKING Locking mechanisms are used to prevent concurrent transactions from updating the same data at the same time Reading(x)  shared lock on x Writing(x)  exclusive lock on x More types of locks exist for efficiency 41 Shared lockExclusive lock Shared lockYesNo Exclusive lockNo What you have What you request In Distributed DBs: x may be replicated in multiple sites (not one place) The transactions reading or writing x may be running at different sites

42. DISTRIBUTED LOCKING Centralized approach One dedicated site managing all locks Cons: bottleneck, not scalable, single point of failure Primary-Copy approach Every item in the database, say x, has a primary site, say Px Any transaction running any where, will ask Px for lock on x Fully Distributed approach To read, lock any copy of x To write, lock all copies of x Variations exists to balance the cots of read and write op. 42 Deadlocks are very possible. How to resolve them??? Using timeout: After waiting for a while for a lock, abort and start again

43. Promises of DDBMSs Transparent management of distributed, fragmented, and replicated data Improved reliability/availability through distributed transactions Improved performance Easier and more economical system expansion Classification of DDBMS Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous Client-Sever vs. Collaborative Servers vs. Peer-to-Peer SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTED DBMS 43

44. SUMMARY OF DISTRIBUTED DBMS (CONT’D) Data Layout Issues Data partitioning and fragmentation Data replication Query Processing and Distributed Transactions Distributed join Transaction atomicity using two-phase commit Transaction serializability using distributed locking 44