1. Metals

2. Major Topics History Classification of Metals Iron Steel
Steel pipe, Tubing, and Wire
Steel Fasteners
Rivets
Structural Bolts
Welding
Steel Floor & Roof Framing

3. Major Topics con’t Aluminum Lead Zinc Copper and Alloys
Nickel, Chromium, Cadmium & Titanium
Clad Metals

4. History of Metal Used as early as 8000 B.C.
Early civilizations mainly used metal for weapons, tools, and body armor
Metal has been used for construction material ranging from simple fasteners to main structural members

5. Classification of Metals
2 main classifications
Ferrous- metals containing a large percentage of iron (Fe)
Cast iron
Wrought iron
Steel
Non-Ferrous- metals which do NOT contain iron
Aluminum
Lead
Copper
Brass
Bronze

6. Alloys
Alloy – a substance composed of two or more metals

7. Blanking- in sheet metalwork, the cutting out of a piece of metal (using a press)
Braking- a mechanical bending operation usually performed on sheets and plates
Casting- an article formed by solidification of molten metal in a mold
Cold drawing- drawing metal through a die without the application of heat
Cold-rolled- metal rolled at room temperature, below the softening point, usually harder, smoother, and more accurately dimensioned that hot-rolled material.
Drawing- forcing metal to flow into a desired shape without melting by pulling it through dies
Embossing- creating a raised surface (design) on metal by die pressure or by stamping or hammering on the reverse surface
Extrusion – forcing a molten metal through a die by pressure
Forging- heating and hammering or pressing metal into a desired shape

8. Iron One of the most abundant metals on earth
Commercial iron is composed of carbon, manganese, silicon, phosphorus, and sulfur

9. Materials Used to Make Iron
Iron ore
Coke- fuel used to melt iron; derived from coal
Limestone- used as a flux
Flux – a material added to react chemically with impurities and remove them from molten metal
Pig Iron- initial molded product from a blast-furnace; weak & brittle, but very hard

10. Types of Iron
Cast iron (and gray cast iron)- brittle metals with high compressive strength and capacity to absorb vibration. Lack ductility and therefore should not be hammered or beaten. Relatively corrosion resistant. Contains 2-4 % carbon
Used for gratings, stair components, manhole covers, some piping
Wrought iron- soft, corrosion and fatigue resistant, and easily machined. Contains < 1 % carbon
Used for railings, grilles, fences, screens, and various ornamental work

11. Steel
A malleable alloy of iron and carbon with substantial quantities of manganese
3 main methods for making steel
Open-hearth process
Oxygen process
Electric furnace process

12. Mill Output Ingot- molded square or rectangular blocks of cast metal
Ingots are further squeezed between rollers to produce:
Bloom- a rectangular solid of steel formed from an ingot as an intermediate step in creating rolled steel structural shapes (over 36” square)
Billet- a large cylinder or rectangular solid of metal (smaller then 36” square)
Slab – if the width is 2x the thickness or more

13. Standard Mill Products
Angle- a section of metal rolled, drawn, or extruded through L- Shaped rolls or dies
Bar- round, square, rectangular, hexagonal, or solid stock of drawn, rolled, or extruded metal. A rod.
Channel – a rolled, drawn, or extruded metal section having a U shape.
Flat- a rectangular bar whose width is greater than its thickness
Pipe, round- a hollow, round section of metal, the size of which is determined by the nominal inside diameter in inches
Pipe, square- a hollow, square section of metal, the size is determined by the nominal outside diameter in inches
Plate- a flat piece of metal; various metals are defined as plate by the following thickness criteria: Aluminum==1/4” or more; Copper==.188” or more; Steel (including stainless)== 3/16” or more

14. Designations of Rolled Steel Shapes
W – wide flange
S -- beams
C –channels
L – angles (may be equal or unequal legs)
WT or MT – structural tees

15. Example of Designation
W 36 x 300
W === a wide flange beam
36 === indicates a beam 36” deep
300 === weight in lbs/ linear feet

16. Samples of Steel Shapes
Angle
Channel
Wide Flange
S-Beam
Square & Rectangular Tubing
Tee

17. Steel Wire 6 million tons of wire produced in the U.S. annually
Shapes are not only round, but may also include: square, rectangular, and polygonal
Wire is used as the starting material to form nails, bolts, screws, rivets, and welding electrodes
Temper- wires hardness, stiffness, and strength is affected by the amount of carbon and alloying agents, number of passes through dies, and the final heat treatment
Wire may be produced with different finishes and coated, painted, or plated depending on its intended use

18. Classification of Steel
Four main specifications
Method of manufacture
Heat treatment
Chemical composition
Reference to a recognized standard

19. Stainless Steel
To be considered stainless a steel must contain 11.5 % chromium
There are basic series of stainless steel: 200, 300, 400, & 500 series
Available in many finishes ranging from matte to highly reflective (mirror)

20. Structural Steel
Consists of hot-rolled steel section, shapes, and plates not less than 1/8” thick
The most commonly used strength grade is 36,000 psi yield strength (ASTM 36)
For heavily loaded members such as columns, girders, or trusses, a high strength, low alloy steel with a yield strength of 50,000 psi

21. Steel Construction 3 basic types: Wall bearing Skeleton framing
Long-span
Large industrial buildings, auditoriums, sports arenas
Often use steel trusses, steel arches, or rigid bents in this type of construction (see figures 5-17, 5-18, and 5-19 on page 127)

22. Steel Fasteners 3 main types of fasteners:
Rivets
Bolts
Unfinished (common, machine)
High-strength structural bolts- resist vibration (ASTM 325 or A490 are stamped on bolt head)
Welds
In some application (based on code requirements) more than one method may be used

23. Welding
A process of joining metals by applying heat and pressure, with or without filler material, to produce an actual union through fusion.
There are several methods of welding used in specific situations (shielded metal arc is the most common in steel work).
Welding symbols and basic joints are standardized by AWS (American Welding Society) – see figure 5-28 on page 132

24. Steel Floor and Roof Framing
Considerations for systems used:
Span
Load to be applied
Depth
Weight
Fire resistance (code)
Sound transmission
Heating/Cooling system
Appearance
Cost/Time

25. Open Web Steel Joists Widely used because of the long spans
See figure 5-29 on page 133 for types
Ends of open web joists (hung from the top chord) are extended a minimum of 4 “ in masonry/concrete, and a minimum of 21/2 “ over steel supports.
Corrugated or ribbed steel decking many times used in combination with the joists.

26. Aluminum
Bauxite, the major source of aluminum, is still very abundant in the earth (Jamaica)
Highly resistant to weather and corrosive environments
Aluminum can be economically extruded to many shapes (mouldings, edgings, window mullions)
It is very malleable, quite ductile, non-corrosive, and strong in proportion to its weight.

27. Lead
Important physical properties include: resistance to corrosion, its plasticity, and its malleability
Used for waterproofing, sound and vibration isolation, and radiation shield.
Can be combined with a tin alloy to plate iron or steel (called “terneplate”)
Use extreme care where and how lead is used because lead vapors or dust are toxic if ingested.

28. Zinc Is brittle and low in strength
Major use is in galvanizing (dipping hot iron or steel in molten zinc)
May also be used for roofing, flashing, and hardware

29. Copper Resistant to corrosion, impact, and fatigue; very ductile
Primary use is electrical wiring, roofing, flashing, and piping
The oxidization of copper produces what is called a green “patina”

30. Bronze
Originally a copper-tin alloy, but now aluminum or silicon added to copper
Now may be “phosphor bronze”, “aluminum bronze” or “silicon bronze”
Widely used for casting delicate mold impressions (Cathedral doors)

31. Brass Copper with zinc to form an alloy
Used for doors, windows, railings, trim, grilles and for finish hardware

32. Nickel, Chromium, and Monel
Chromium and nickel are used primarily as alloying elements, however, both can take a bright polish and do not tarnish in air, making them ideal for use in plating.
Monel, a nickel-copper alloy, is mostly used to make fasteners and anchors, and has excellent corrosion resistance.

33. Clad Metals
Combines the best qualities of 2 or more different materials
The intent is to create a metallurgical bond between layers of materials

34. Galvanic Action
Corrosion occurs between dissimilar metals when sufficient moisture is present to carry an electric current. The galvanic series, a list of metals arranged from “least noble (anode)”, most reactive, to “most noble” (cathode), is an indicator of corrosion susceptibility. The farther apart the metals are on the list, the greater the deterioration of the least noble one.