1. Theories of Practice: The Structural Frame MPA 8002 The Structure and Theory of Human Organization Richard M. Jacobs, OSA, Ph.D.

2. Since the mid-19th century and throughout the Industrial Era, social scientists have made inquiry into the nature of human organizations. The overall endeavor has been to objectify and analyze those factors which constitute effective and efficient organizations.

3. The goal has been to characterize how effective and efficient organizations: function well achieve and surpass goals survive and thrive in the environment what competitors emulate

4. The rational and objective side of human organizations... The structural frame upholds the notion that organizations are judged primarily on and by the proper functioning of those elements which constitute good organization... …giving appropriate emphasis to the process integrating people and technology... …and enabling the organization to achieve its goals.

5. The fundamental responsibility of managers and leaders is to clarify organizational goals, to attend to the relationship between structure and environment, and to develop a structure that is clear and appropriate to the goals, the task, and the environment. Without such a structure, people become unsure about what they are supposed to be doing. The result is confusion, frustration, and conflict. In an effective organization, individuals are clear about their responsibilities and their contribution. Policies, linkages, and lines of authority are well-defined. When an organization has the right structure and people understand it, the organization can achieve its goals and individuals can be effective in their roles. A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO

6. The job of managers and leaders is to focus on task, facts, and logic, not personality and emotions. Most “people” problems really stem from structural flaws rather than from flaws in individuals. Structural managers and leaders are not necessarily authoritarian and do not necessarily solve every problem by issuing orders (though that will sometimes be appropriate). Instead, they try to design and implement a process or structure appropriate to the problem and the circumstances. Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 355) MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO

7. the structural frame

8. For the greater part of the 20th century, the assumptions and concepts of scientific management have informed most theories of practice.

9. One of the earliest precursors of scientific management... Max Weber 19th century sociologist hired by Frederick the Great to reorganize the Prussian army conceived the “rationalized bureaucracy”

10. But, if Max Weber “rationalized” the bureaucracy… …Frederick Winslow Taylor “hyper-rationalized” the bureaucracy.

11. Frederick Winslow Taylor... originally trained as a statistician conducted time and motion studies to ascertain the “one best way” in turn, this provided the basis for worker training, assessment, and improvement sought an objective, scientific mechanism to improve organizational functioning the “father” of scientific management

12. In 1911, Taylor published his theory of practice, The Principles of Scientific Management......eventually, Taylor’s book became the standard textbook in management training in the North America and Europe.

13. The assumptions of scientific management... 1. organizations exist to achieve established goals and objectives 3. structures must be designed to fit an organization’s circumstances (including its goals, technology, and environment) 2. organizations work best when rationality prevails over personal preferences and external pressures

14. 4. organizations increase efficiency and enhance performance through specialization and division of labor 6. problems and performance gaps arise from structural deficiencies and are best remedied through organizational restructuring 5. appropriate forms of coordination and control are essential to ensure that individuals and units work together although both are subordinate to organizational goals

15. The Five Principles of Scientific Management... 1. shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager 2. use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing the work 3. select the best person to perform the job thus designed 4. train the worker to do the work efficiently 5. monitor worker performance

16. Although “common sense” by today’s standards... Taylor’s principles were a fundamental assault upon traditional theories of practice Taylor’s intention was to effect a “mental revolution” aimed at transforming how people looked at work, their lives, and their world

17. The mental revolution... fixed division of labor reform: craft guilds and trades where one worker completes an entire job replaced:

18. uniform rules govern job performance reform: work dictated by the caprice, whim, fancy, or feeling of a superordinate replaced:

19. workers would possess technical qualifications reform: patrimony, patronage, graft replaced:

20. the separation of person from office reform: individual assertions, claims, tenure replaced:

21. a hierarchy of officers reform: dictators, autocrats, monarchs replaced:

22. work as a “life-long” career in an organization reform: work as a “trade” where workers seek employment wherever available replaced:

23. Taylor’s mental revolution also transformed managerial practice... his principles focused attention upon the manager as a “social architect”

24. In practice episodes... managers apply the principles and concepts of scientific management to resolve the fundamental dilemmas present in the workplace Although Taylor is oftentimes credited (or discredited) for rationalizing the workplace, he was the first to introduce the concept of “creativity” into the managerial process.

25. Management and leadership as creative “social architecture”... integration: the manager devises a structure to conjoin people, process, and technology in the most efficient and effective way possible division of labor: the manager designs an appropriate means of control to facilitate vertical and lateral integration span of control: the manager organizes a system of supervision and accountability fundamental concepts:

26. The dilemmas confronting managers and leaders... differentiation integration vs.

27. gaps overlaps vs.

28. underuse overload vs.

29. lack of clarity lack of creativity vs.

30. excessive autonomy excessive interdependence vs.

31. too loose too tight vs.

32. diffuse authority over-centralization vs.

33. goal-less goal-bound vs.

34. irresponsibility unresponsiveness vs.

35. Scientific management... focuses on the social context of work specifies goals, roles, and relationships encourages organizational efficiency and effectiveness In its inception, scientific management represented a fundamental reform of the workplace. But, as scientific management became an orthodox ideology governing practice episodes, some of its assumptions proved to be problematic.

36. “Taylorism” as scientific management came to be known... dominated the training of managers and leaders for most of the 20th century eventually became an ideology shaping how people viewed virtually every form of human organization, including for-profit business, not-for-profit social services (e.g., hospitals, municipal governments, schools), and even homes

37. Some recent kindred cousins of scientific management... PERT Analysis (1960s) Organizational Re-Engineering (1990s) Management By Objectives (1970s) Total Quality Management (1980s) Strategic Planning (1980s)

38. But, the principles contain hidden assumptions... 1. shift all responsibility for the organization of work from the worker to the manager managers do all of the thinking related to the planning and design of work, leaving the workers with the task of implementation

39. 2. use scientific methods to determine the most efficient way of doing the work managers design the worker’s task by specifying the precise way in which the work is to be done

40. 3. select the best person to perform the job thus designed job competencies and requirements can be explicitly detailed

41. 4. train the worker to do the work efficiently training is routinized, involving demonstration, practice, and drill

42. 5. monitor worker performance managers ensure that appropriate procedures are followed and that pre-determined results are achieved

43. integration division of labor span of control hierarchies policies procedures rules assessment implies structural elements: The power of scientific management...

44. the structure will support the work …can improve organizational functioning... As these structural elements align people, process, and technology: the organizational structure and workforce will complement one another efficiency and effectiveness will create the circumstances for achieving the organization’s goals

45. the structure will remain impervious to challenge …or can become an ideology... When the structural elements become more important than the people in the organization: new management will re-establish control—or— the organization will flounder until it eventually dies in its environment tensions between structure and people will mount inefficiencies and ineffectiveness will contribute to organizational dysfunction

46. Managing and leading human organizations requires... developing a comprehensive conception of the organization What is its mission and vision? What are its current strategies and goals? What does its history say about the organization’s strengths and weaknesses? What opportunities and threats are present?

47. How do things really work? How did things come to be this way? Gather factual data that support these matters. Do not rely on anecdotal information. Rather than attempting to “reinvent the wheel,” how might elements of the present structure be used to foster organizational change? critically examining existing structures and processes

48. formulate an organizational purpose that responds to an environmental demand, a perceived need, or an opportunity to be seized mix expertise and generate healthy organizational tension by cross-fertilizing divisions forge a common commitment to making “working” decisions for which members bear responsibility but, at the same time, are subject to re-assessment and change designing an organizational structure that takes into account its history, experience, and preferred future:

49. Using scientific management... VISIONMISSION a preferred future what ought to be based upon factual data the motivation the opportunities the challenges

50. VISIONMISSION PURPOSE

51. STRATEGY a shared motive with explicit values formulate preferred scenario explicating why we do what we do define the “game plan”

52. STRATEGYGOALS action-oriented, “smart” outcomes frames subsequent decisions that will be made at lower levels of the organizational hierarchy which implement the strategy

53.  translate the organizational purpose and strategy into performance goals S M A R T short measurable achievable realistic time bound

54. GOALSTACTICS purposive actions by groups in practice episodes frame subsequent decision making by the various groups closest to the action where frequent decisions must be made how we will do what we will do

55. TACTICSPROJECTS purposive actions by individuals in practice episodes frame subsequent decision making by individuals who do the “work” what I will do

56. TACTICS PROJECTS GOALS PURPOSE VISION MISSION STRATEGIES

57.  regularize a system for individual and collective accountability, one that translates the organizational purpose, goals, and commitments into tangible achievements All the while, management and leadership endeavors to... intra-organizational cohesion

58.  adopt the “experimental mentality” associated with practice episodes: to retain what works, to discard what doesn’t, and to refine the structure as needed flexibility

59.  report back what is being learned through practice honest and accurate feedback

60. vertical coordination lateral control To avoid organizational dysfunction... The manager’s challenge is to integrate vertical coordination with lateral control

61. vertical coordination one focus:...to integrate the various levels of the organization’s formal hierarchy

62. power Tactics for vertical coordination... rules and policies planning and control systems legitimate referent expert specify the conditions of work performance control action planning coercive reward

63. lateral control a second focus: …to balance the need for autonomy and responsibility at similar levels in the organization’s formal hierarchy

64. meetings Tactics to exercise lateral control... opportunities for dialogue, feedback about operations, and the honest exchange of facts and insights Meeting agendas should forge structural redesign that promises to improve organizational functioning not provide a forum to air personal grievances and interpersonal conflicts.

65. task forces groupings of stakeholders representing diverse viewpoints A task force is given a specific charge to integrate structures not to be mired in endless debate about current standard operating procedures.

66. coordinating roles engaging in boundary spanning Boundary spanning enables workers to develop the cross-functional skills needed to coordinate work in a complex organization. This liberates both the organization and its members from co-dependency.

67. matrix structures identifying critical linkages between divisions Matrix structures identify and link otherwise disassociated divisions in the endeavor to eliminate inter-divisional conflict, confusion, and turf protection.

68. networks individuals and groups focusing on a particular area of interest Self-organizing networks provide the much needed cross-functionality and geographical diversity to spur creative thinking about organizational issues. However, networks are unwieldy, difficult to control, and offer no guarantees of positive outcomes.

69. vertical coordination lateral control realistic Managers and leaders need to be realistic... While using these tactics to integrate...

70. A realistic theory of managerial and leadership... not the central issue confronting managers and leaders is that change not stability characterizes human organizations However, scientific management and the structural theories of practice associated with it are constructed on the false premise that change does not characterize organizations.

71. Some of the significant changes impacting organizational functioning include: information technology organizational vision environmentsize of organization age of organization core process

72. However, the single, most significant change impacting an organization is: people

73. Because organizations are primarily human enterprises... managers and leaders use scientific management by focusing upon developing a “team”  a small number of people possessing complementary skills  committed to a common purpose, set of performance goals, and approach toward achieving them  for which they hold themselves mutually accountable

74. change alters the clarity and stability of roles and relationships, creating confusion and chaos This requires managers and leaders to be attentive to periodically realigning and renegotiating formal patterns and policies.

75. Structural tasks for managers and leaders... 1. set goals and policies under conditions of uncertainty 2. achieve “delicate balance” in allocating scarce resources across different businesses or functions 3. motivate, coordinate, and control large, diverse group of subordinates

76. effective managers and leaders are …social architects Using scientific management... whose primary concerns are …honest analysis …creative design

77. ineffective managers and leaders are …petty tyrants Abusing scientific management... whose primary concerns are …micro-managing …ruling by fiat …issuing memos

78. …objectivity Strengths of the scientific management theory of practice... …action oriented …logical …modes of accountability

79. …impersonal Limitations of the scientific management theory of practice... …pessimistic …overly simplistic …inflexible

80. Integrating reflective practice, conceptual pluralism, and organizational analysis... Analyzing organizations through four frames inculcates the conceptual pluralism that managers and leaders need to diagnose the issues underlying the problems manifesting themselves in human organizations. the structural frame the human resources frame the political frame the symbolic frame

81. This module has focused on... scientific management theories the scientific management theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes

82. the structural frame as these theories of practice provide managers a frame of reference to inform decision making, the offers managers and leaders guidance about the strengths and limits of scientific management theory

83. The fundamental responsibility of managers and leaders is to clarify organizational goals, to attend to the relationship between structure and environment, and to develop a structure that is clear and appropriate to the goals, the task, and the environment. Without such a structure, people become unsure about what they are supposed to be doing. The result is confusion, frustration, and conflict. In an effective organization, individuals are clear about their responsibilities and their contribution. Policies, linkages, and lines of authority are well-defined. When an organization has the right structure and people understand it, the organization can achieve its goals and individuals can be effective in their roles. A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO

84. The job of managers and leaders is to focus on task, facts, and logic, not personality and emotions. Most “people” problems really stem from structural flaws rather than from flaws in individuals. Structural managers and leaders are not necessarily authoritarian and do not necessarily solve every problem by issuing orders (though that will sometimes be appropriate). Instead, they try to design and implement a process or structure appropriate to the problem and the circumstances. Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 355) MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN A STRUCTURAL SCENARIO

85. the structural frame

86. The next module will focus on... and the psychological theories that managers and leaders can utilize in practice episodes the human resources frame

87. People are the heart of any organization. When people feel the organization is responsive to their needs and supportive of their goals, managers and leaders can count on their followers’ commitment and loyalty. Managers and leaders who are authoritarian or insensitive, who don’t communicate effectively, or who simply don’t care about their people can never be effective managers and leaders. The human resource manager and leader works on behalf of both the organization and its people, seeking to serve the best interests of both. A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

88. The job of the manager and leader is one of support and empowerment. Support takes a variety of forms: letting people know that they are important and that managers and leaders are concerned about them; listening to find out about their followers’ aspirations and goals; and, communicating personal warmth and openness. Human resource managers and leaders empower their followers through participation and openness as well as by making sure that they have the autonomy and the resources they need to do their jobs well. Human resource managers and leaders emphasize honest, two-way communication as a way to identify issues and resolve differences. They are willing to confront others when it is appropriate, but they try to do so in a spirit of openness and caring. Bolman & Deal (1991, p. 359) MANAGEMENT AND LEADERSHIP IN A HUMAN RESOURCES SCENARIO

89. the human resources frame

90. References Bolman, L. G., & Deal, T. E. (1997). Reframing organizations: Artistry, choice and leadership (2 nd edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Sergiovanni, T. J. (1989). Informing professional practice in educational administration. Journal of Educational Administration, 27(2), p. 186. Taylor, F. W. (1911/1967). The principles of scientific management. New York: W. W. Norton. Weber, M. (1930/1992). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism (A. Giddens, Trans.). New York: Routledge.