1. Research Methodology: Academic Writing
Íde O’Sullivan, Lawrence Cleary
Regional Writing Centre
Developing good writing skills is very important in developing higher order thinking skills, which are so important for nurses.
Developing good writing skills so important in order to show the development of critical thought and analysis.
What makes a good essay?
What are the most important elements of academic writing?
Is it using formal and abstract language?
It is about “clear and fluent expression of independent, informed thinking” (The Broadview Guide to Writing, 2005:16)
Different disciplines have different conventions
What are the important criteria for your subject?

2. Freewriting/ Writing to prompts
Strategies that might help boost my academic writing skills………
Keep writing non-stop for 5 minutes.
Write in sentences.
Do not edit or censor your writing.
Discuss what you have written in pairs.
Writing is an essential skill at third level.
What strategies can I develop in order to help boost my writing.

3. Workshop outline Workplan Presentation Structure Overall structure
Paragraph structure
Sentence structure
Academic writing style
Strategies to develop writing

4. Key stages in the process
Planning
Drafting
Revision
Editing and Proofreading
One way to divide up the stages that one goes through is as presented here.
A Reiterative Process
Understanding the essay question and the instructions is one part of the planning process: What are some other tasks performed in this stage? ...In the Drafting stage? ...in the Revision stage?
Brainstorming
Mind maps
Research
Reading/note-taking – the importance of referencing properly
Researching to find the truth, not just someone who agrees with you.
Planning and organising your essay
Getting started
Structuring your essays (paragraphing)
Developing an argument
The importance of evidence/theories/data
Drafting and redrafting your essay
Editing and proofreading your essay
Simple plan – introduction, middle, end

5. The rhetorical situation
Occasion
Topic
Audience
Purpose
Writer
Occasion: Time / Space restrictions. How much time, how many words, in what form?
Audience: Expectations: stylistic conventions, formatting issues, academic rigor? Discourse community.
Topic: What do I already know; what do I need to know? How do I discover?
Purpose: Express my feelings, inform, persuade? Academic persuasion.
Writer: What are my strengths and weaknesses? What is my experience with academic writing? What strategies have I developed? What criteria do I use to self-evaluate how well I am doing? Are my strategies working? What emotional response do I have to assigned writing tasks? 5

6. Organising principles
Thesis
Questions
Hypothesis 6

7. Organising principles
Unity
Coherence
Cohesion
Unity: each word, sentence, paragraph contributes to supporting your initial claim, answering your question, confirming or disaffirming your hypothesis.
Coherence/Cohesion: Is it understandable; does it hold together well? Co-referential language; Relational language or transition signals; logic: Logical order: chronological, spatial, order of importance, large to small, simple to complex, etc.
Open text: ask students to make a list of stylistic features of academic writing. 7

8. Key tasks for academic writers
Participating in academic conversations
Developing and advancing balanced arguments
Exploring your personal writing process
Developing strategies that work for you
Essay question is an invitation to participate in an already ongoing discussion 8

9. Workplan Understanding the assignment
Formulating the question/hypothesis
Brainstorming (mind-mapping)
Research (note-taking)
Planning and organising your research
Structuring your research
Developing and sustaining your argument
Drafting and redrafting your work
Editing and proofreading your work
How much time? When is the proposal due? The final copy?
How many pages?
How much time do you need to research?
How much time to you need to investigate your question?
How much time do you need to write your first draft? Second draft? To revise, edit and proofread?
How much time do you need for printing, binding, etc.

10. Presentation and layout
Font
Margins
Line spacing
Pagination
Headings
Numbering systems
Table of contents

11. Presentation and layout
Preliminaries
Main Text
End Matter
A major report
or thesis is
generally
divided into
three parts.
The materials included in each section are usually set by the particular college or department to whom the report is submitted. For FYP students who are submitting to the Languages and Cultural Studies Department, the material to be contained in each part is assigned by the College of Humanities and can be found in the Final Year Project Booklet for the Class of 2008.

12. Structuring the main text
Introduction
Chapters / Sections that inform the reader of the context for the arguments posed, explain the methods of inquiry and the procedure used to gather data or evidence, present the findings, discuss the findings, draw conclusions from the findings, and develop the argument.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The Main Text is divided into chapters / sections:
The material that follows the Introduction should carry the argument, or else attempt to prove or disprove the hypothesis, that had been posed in the Introduction. Typical chapter titles include a Literature Review, a Methodology section, a Presentation of the Data / Findings, a Discussion of the Results of the Investigation, which is ultimately followed by the Conclusion and Recommendations. This type of organization marks the typical development of the argument.
Introductions and Conclusions will be dealt with in Week 2.

13. Structuring the main text
Chapter 1- Introduction
Chapter 2 - Background and literature review
Chapter 3 – Research design and methodology
Chapter 4 - Data analysis / results and discussion
Chapter 5 – Conclusion

14. Structuring the main text
Keep in mind the assignment question, any questions you need to answer in order to answer the assignment question, and the instruction word as you plan your essay/dissertation.
From beginning to end, the point of order is the initial question, claim or hypothesis.
Do not “write down all you know about…”

15. Structuring the main text
Organise the essay/dissertation so that the argument unfolds in a clearly stated, detailed, logical, linear progression and arrangement of ideas.
Introduction: present the thesis, hypothesis, or question that you will try to defend, prove or disprove, or answer.
Sections: to support the thesis
Conclusions

16. The introduction
In academic writing, an introduction, or opening, has four purposes:
To introduce the topic of the essay/dissertation
To indicate the context of the conversation through background information
To give some indication of the overall plan of the essay
To catch the reader’s attention, usually by convincing the reader of its relevance.
This idea of ‘context’ and ‘relevance’ is important. Too often a student tries to foist some inappropriate idea of relevance onto the reader. If a student is well versed in the discourse of her area of study, then she’ll know what is relevant to these readers. And to say something is relevant because it is important is just begging the question. Too often students use logical fallacies to foist relevance onto a reader. Advice: get involved in the discussion.

17. The introduction The introductory paragraph is funnel-shaped:
It begins with broad statements.
The statements become more and more specific as the writer narrows the scope of the topic, until…
The topic is narrowed to a point that can be handled in an essay. This is your thesis statement.
Domain (main area)
Topic
Focus (pinpoint exactly what you’re doing)
Situate context of research question
Give clear objectives
Outline plan

18. The introduction Introduction to area to be researched (context)
Research question/problem (objectives)
Rationale/relevance of the topic
Hypothesis/es
Brief outline of methodology (including statement on ethics)
Assumptions
Delimitations
Chapter outline (plan)

19. CARS model Establishing a territory Establishing a niche
Claiming centrality
Reviewing items of previous research
Establishing a niche
Counter-claiming
Identifying a gap
Question-raising
Occupying the niche
Outlining purpose
Swales (1990:141)

20. Structuring the main text
Chapter 2 - Background and Literature Review
Introduction: What does Chapter 2 consist of? What is its unifying point of order?
Sections on each of the main areas of literature you will review
Definition of terms
Conclusion/s based on Chapter 2
Aim: reveal the current state of knowledge/state of the art on a selected topic
Instead of just reporting on the literature, students should comment also, speculating on the meaning of what is offered in those texts as well as its significance.
Conclusion / s: The conclusions drawn here, enumerate the justifications for the project. Organize the justifications in a logical way. This is an opportunity to synthesize information. How do the conclusions drawn in one section influence the conclusions made on information gleaned from the literature in another section.

21. Structuring the main text
Make sure
that the literature reviewed is relevant (do not “write down all you know about…”), and
that the discussion of the literature is not too long - there must be a balance between this section and the remaining sections.
How is the literature relevant to the student’s question, hypothesis or claim? Does it help to justify the research, or does it justify the limitations? Everything has to contribute to the development of the argument. It might support the hypothesis or claim; it might serve as a rebuttal that is presented for balance. Then evidence might be used to rebut the rebuttal.
Don’t forget. It is not necessary, here, to put everything that the literature offers. Evidence or data that argues against a rebuttal wouldn’t be relevant here. A smart student would save the kind of information just spoken of for the discussion of the results of the analysis.

22. Structuring the main text
Chapter 3 – Research design and methodology
Introduction: What does Chapter 3 consist of?
Research methodology
Data collection (steps you took, methodology)
Data analysis
Conclusions based on Chapter 3
Clearly state research questions/aims
Hypothesis/es

23. Structuring the main text
Make Sure…
that the methodology addresses both the procedure for the collection of your data and the one for your analysis.
that you section the analysis so that the argument unfolds in a clearly stated, detailed, logical progression.
that you view the data objectively. Don’t ignore data that disproves the hypothesis or claim.

24. Structuring the main text
Chapter 4 - Data analysis / results and discussion
The results section must not only present the results; it must make the results meaningful for the reader.
The discussion should not simply provide more detail about the results; it should interpret and explain the results.
Methods of organising the results and discussion.

25. Discussion (Swales, 1990: 172/3)
Background information
Statement of results
(Un)expected results
Reference to previous research
Explanation
Exemplification
Deduction and hypothesis
Recommendation
Swales’ (1990) moves in a discussion
This is not necessarily the order in which the moves will occur in a discussion.

26. Structuring the main text
Chapter 5 – Conclusion (Seminar 2)
To what extend have the aims of the study been achieved?
How has your primary and secondary research (Chapters 2 and 3) helped answer the research questions you had in Chapter 1?
Have your hypotheses been proved/disproved/partially proved?
Say a little something about that word, “proof”. If something is proven, it is 100% reliable, or a fact. Recognition of the degree to which something can be said to be true is a mark of academic acheivement. Don’t say that something is “proven” unless it is undeniable. Distinguish between an extremely high probability of truth, a moderately high probability of truth, a fifty-fifty probability of truth, and a low probability. Often, there is more than one possibility. Your argument should contain reasons for the preference of one probability over another. Other probabilities should be acknowledged the reasons for not preferring these other possibilities should be explained. Claims for the probability of some truth should be backed by evidence and examples, and any holes in the support for believing one theory or approach is more reliable than another should be addressed by delineating the type of research that is required in order to fill that / those gap(s).

27. Structuring the main text
Chapter 5 (continued…)
Discuss the Implications.
Did the study raise any further questions?
Any recommendations for future research?

28. Conclusion A conclusion should:
Remind the reader of the main points of your argument
Bring ‘closure to the interpretation of the data’ (Leedy, 2001: 291)
Be clear
Be logical
Be credible
A ‘discussion of the main themes and points evident from the literature and the methodology in relation to the research topic/problem’ (BSc in Nursing Handbook, 2003: 11)
A ‘discussion of the possible challenges and proposed outcomes of the proposed research project’ (BSc in Nursing Handbook, 2003: 11)

29. Conclusion A good conclusion:
Demonstrates an awareness of the limitations
Discusses the implications of the findings
Offers suggestions for future developments – Remember: A summary alone of what you have done is a weak conclusion
Ends on a positive note – final sentence should be strong and positive

30. End matter The End Matter generally consists of:
a References page and/or a Bibliography,
Appendices, and
in some technical reports, a Glossary might be found at the end of this section.
More about Referencing later.
Appendices: The appendices generally contain all of the raw data collected; though, it may contain calculations or diagrams of the materials used or details and illustrations of an experiment’s design and the procedures followed. Darina Slattery and Yvonne Cleary suggest that each Appendix item be listed in the Table of Contents, giving each a letter or number designation along with a title that signifies what that particular Appendix contains. They also remind us that information contained in the Appendices should be referred to when appropriate, using the designation and title when making the reference.

31. The dissertation should not be a Magical Mystery Tour!
Review
The dissertation should not be a Magical Mystery Tour!
The dissertation has a clear structure.
From beginning to end, the point of order is the initial question, claim or hypothesis.
Chapter and section headings announce the organisation with a logical, linear, progressive arrangement of ideas.

32. Review At its simplest, the structure…
…contains an introductory chapter
…provides context (relevant theoretical, historical background)
…includes a study / analysis of its subject data (1 or 2 chapters)
…comes to a conclusion and, perhaps, recommends future research.

33. Paragraph structure
Essays are divided into paragraphs in a meaningful way.
What is a paragraph?
Series of sentences (related to each other in a meaningful way)
Coherent (introduction, middle, end)
Common theme
Every sentence in a paragraph develops one topic or idea, and each paragraph in an argumentative essay, likewise, develops the line of argument that supports the thesis statement.

34. Paragraph structure
Paragraphs signal the logically organised progression of ideas.
When organising paragraphs, the main idea in one paragraph should flow logically into the next.
The flow of information should be organised around themes and comments.
Shifts in the argument or changes in direction should be accurately signalled using appropriate adverbials, conjunctions, and prepositions.
The topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the last paragraph and should lead on to the topic of the next paragraph.

35. Paragraph structure
Just as an essay is guided by a thesis statement, a paragraph is organised around its topic sentence.
A topic sentence informs the reader of the topic to be discussed.
A topic sentence contains controlling ideas which limit the scope of the discussion to ideas that are manageable in a paragraph.
An example would be: ‘Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 17). The topic is ‘gold’. The unnamed ‘important characteristics’ control the scope of the paragraph. Only these two characteristics will be talked about in this paragraph. Controlling ideas must be able to be spoken of in a single paragraph. If a writer thinks that she needs more than a paragraph to talk about either one of these characteristics, then she should reframe the controlling idea in her topic sentence.

36. Paragraph structure
‘Gold, a precious metal, is prized for two important characteristics’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 17).
The topic - What is it?
The controlling idea - What is it?
The method of development - What is it?
How the topic sentence may indicates some type of paragraph development and organization.

37. Paragraph structure: Supporting sentences
The sentences that follow expand upon the topic, using controlling ideas to limit the discussion. The main idea is supported by
Evidence in the form of facts, statistics, theoretical probabilities, reputable, educated opinions,
Illustrations in the form of examples and extended examples, and
Argumentation based on the evidence presented.
Qualifying statements indicate the limitations of the support or argument.

38. Paragraph structure: Concluding sentences
Concluding sentences can either comment on the information in the text, or
They can paraphrase the topic sentence, or
They can transition into the topic or aspect of the topic to be discussed in the paragraph that follows.
Not every paragraph needs a concluding sentence.
Signal the end of a paragraph
Summarise the important points

39. Paragraph structure: Unity
Paragraphs should be unified.
‘Unity means that only one main idea is discussed in a paragraph. The main idea is stated in the topic sentence, and then each and every supporting sentence develops that idea’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 18).
Basically, ‘unity’ demands that digressions are kept to a minimum. ‘Coherence’ addresses a lot of issues, but the instructor can think of her own experiences with some of the papers she’s received. The biggest offence is usually pronoun references that haven’t any recognizable antecedent. What the hell is that?
Good practices that aid in text coherence are:
repetition of key nouns. Nouns are referential. Repetition can be boring, but that’s where a good thesaurus comes in.
Use of consistent pronouns. Students should be aware that person or number shifts are confusing. They shouldn’t be changing ‘from you to he or she (change of person), or from he to they (change of number)’ (Oshima and Hogue, 1999: 42).
Lastly, good use of transition signals (next slide) makes for an easier read.

40. Paragraph structure: Coherence
Coherence means that your paragraph is easy to read and understand because
your supporting sentences are in some kind of logical order
your ideas are connected by the use of appropriate transition signals
your pronoun references clearly point to the intended antecedent and is consistent
you have repeated or substituted key nouns.
(Oshima and Hogue, 2006: 22)
Show the connections and relationships between arguments so that sentences flow smoothly.
Logical and smooth movement from one sentence to the next.

41. Cohesive devices References
Backwards (pronouns, demonstratives , definite article)
Forwards (the following, as follows, subsequently)
Substitution (so, one, ones)
Ellipsis (the remainder, another part)
Conjunction (however, for example, furthermore, firstly)
Lexical cohesion (Repetition, Synonyms)
Anaphoric nouns (this problem, this situation, this view, this process)
(Gillett, 2005) Using English for academic Purposes
University of Melbourne, Language and Learning Skills Unit
To show how various parts of the paragraph are connected

42. Examples: Gillett (2005)
“Some of the water which falls as rain flows on the surface as streams. Another part is evaporated. The remainder sinks into the ground and is known as ground water.”
Ellipsis
“Genetics deals with how genes are passed on from parents to their offspring. A great deal is known about the mechanisms governing this process.”
Anaphoric nouns

43. Examples: Gillett (2005)
“This first example illustrates an impulsive overdose taken by a woman who had experienced a recent loss and had been unable to discuss her problems with her family. During the relatively short treatment, the therapist helped the patient to begin discussing her feelings with her family.”
Lexical cohesion

44. Paragraph structure: Transition signals
Transition signals do exactly what it says on the tin: they ‘signal’. They can signal relationships between sentences, just as they can signal relationships between paragraphs.
Example: ‘Finally, there have been numerous women altogether outside the profession, who were reformers dedicated to creating alternatives’ (Gillett, 2005: Online).
The signal indicates the final point in a series of points.
There’s not a lot to say here, except that this is another area that marks academic writing. This is a convention of the register. Academic writing tends to be explicit. I’m sure that students would appreciate that, when reading texts that include complex discussions and arguments, or ideas, that require equally complex methods of development. Explicit signals that indicate grammatical and logical relations can be a dogsend. I think I’m dyslexic.
Organizational signals:
Chronological signals: First, Second, Thirdly, then, next, after that, Finally
Spatial signals: In the distance to your right, moving clockwise and approaching the entrance, the upper right hand corner, etc.
Order of importance: The most important, the least important, the next most important.
Logical division: categorization / classification
Signalling attitude: admittedly, oddly enough, strangely, righteously, etc.
Grammatical relations:
Personal pronouns: it, they, this, that, these, her, him, us
Relative pronouns: who, which, that, where
Other substitutions: so, such, thus, there, then
Articles: Evidence was found…The evidence suggested
Continuous idea markers:
Logical relations:
Addition: and, in addition, as well as
Cause/Result: because, since, due to, therefore
Contrast: while, whereas, on the other hand
Concession: but, despite, however
Purpose: so, so as to, to, in order to
Time: when, before, while, during

45. Example
“If people stopped drinking, they might be able to prevent liver cirrhosis. However, governments permit the production and sale of alcohol. So, the government should help in preventing this disease. Nevertheless, government resources are limited.”
University of Melbourne, Language and Learning Skills Unit:
Doubling of conjunctions – and but…………………

46. Paragraph structure Dos and Don’ts
Do not use pronouns to refer to an antecedent in the previous paragraph.
Lengthy paragraphs indicate a lack of structure.
Short paragraphs indicate a lack of detail or evidence to support the argument.
Do not end a paragraph with a quotation.
Use a variety of sentence patterns and lengths to give your paragraph a lively rhythm.
Signpost your paragraph organisation.
Ending sentences in paragraphs tend to be sentences that comment on the conclusion. Using a quote to end a paragraph is allowing the quote to do the student’s critical work. Their own responses indicate the depth of their critical thought. Maybe that is why student’s use quotes to end paragraphs?
Sentence variety. Our language demands rhythmic variety. It keeps the reader awake. Sentence that are all of the same length, or else follow the same pattern such as a sequence of sentences that all begin with adverbial clauses followed by a single independent clause tend to put us to distract the reader at best, to put them to sleep at worst.

47. Sentence structure
Vary your rhythm by using a variety of sentence types and patterns. Use a combination of
Simple sentences
Compound sentences
Complex sentences
Compound-Complex sentences
Do not limit yourself to simple sentences or linking sentences using “and”/”but”.

48. Academic Writing Style
What is distinctive about academic writing style?
The voice: Formality, rigour, clear argument
Different disciplines have different conventions
What are the important criteria for your subject?

49. Stylistic differences that mark academic writing
Complexity
Formality
Objectivity
Explicitness
Hedging
Responsibility
Differences that mark academic writing. 49

50. Persuasion and truth in academic writing
Because they are argumentative, academic writing tends to be persuasive.
An argument should be persuasive, but don’t sacrifice truth in favour of persuasion.
Academic inquiry is a truth-seeking pursuit.
facts are distinguished from opinions.
relative truths are distinguished from absolute truths.
The integrity of the conclusions reached in an academic essay or report is based on its honest pursuit of truth.
Expository writing emphasizes the topic. It focuses on facts and ideas.
Persuasive writing emphasizes the reader. This type of writing focuses on changing the reader’s mind or moving the reader to action.
However, academic writing never sacrifices truth in its effort to persuade.
Claims are qualified.

51. Academic writing style
Hedge. Distinguish between absolutes and probabilities. Absolutes are 100% certain. Probabilities are less than 100% certain.
Be responsible. Provide traceable evidence and justifications for any claims you make or any opinions you have formed as a result of your research.

52. Strategies to Develop Writing

53. Cracking the codes Analysing the genre/text and modelling
Generate a list of
The most important features of academic writing
Criteria to make your writing-strategies more effective
The important conventions in your discipline
What is/is not acceptable in your discipline
Student handbooks and guides for written submissions
Writing dictionaries 53 53

54. Getting started Create time and space for writing Freewriting
Writing to prompts
“What writing have you done for this assignment, what writing would you like to do……”
“The aim of this assignment…”
Experiment with different types of writing

55. Other types of writing
Keep a learning diary (Moore and Murphy, 2005:61) / writing diary / process journal (Elbow and Belanoff, 2003:19).
When do you feel most/least motivated to write?
What strategies have/have not worked in the past?
Write a little bit every day (Moore and Murphy, 2005:117):
“we learn to write through writing” (Hyland, 2002:81).
Keep a notebook with you to record ideas when they come to mind (Moore and Murphy, (2005).
What do you like/not like about writing
What strategies are/are not helpful
Formal versus informal writing (and how the latter can nourish the former)

56. Writing time Dealing with issues of time Setting goals
“Binge” and “snack” writing (Murray, 2005)
Do I need a big block of time to write productively?
“Short bursts of productive writing” (Murray and Moore, 2006:17)
Outlining (Murray, 2005)

57. Other strategies The importance of reading Modelling
Images and diagrams
Mind mapping
Writing dictionaries
Images and diagrams
Notetaking/planning—using visualizations/spatial organizations,etc.
A dictionary that records words you have used for the first time and how they were used.

58. Dialogue as a social strategy
Peer-review
Generative writing
The “writing sandwich” (Murray, 2005:85): writing, talking, writing
Writing “buddies” (Murray and Moore, 2006:102)
Engaging in critiques of one another’s work allows you to become effective critics of your own work.
Regional Writing Centre 58 58

59. Strategies that work for you
Writing is a personal process
Learning diary (Moore and Murphy, 2005:61)
Process journal (Elbow and Belanoff, 2003:19)
When do you feel most/least motivated to write?
What strategies have/have not worked in the past?
What do you like/not like about writing
What strategies are/are not helpful 59 59

60. Resources
Shannon Consortium Regional Writing Centre, UL
Using English for Academic Purposes
The Writer’s Garden cyberlyber.com/writermain.htm
The OWL at Purdue
The Writing Center at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill /wcweb/handouts/index.html
Handout 60

61. Reference List
Elbow, P. (1998) Writing without Teachers (2nd edition). New York: Oxford University Press.
Elbow, P. and Belanoff, P. (2003) Being a Writer: A Community of Writers Revisited. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hyland, K. (2002) Teaching and Researching Writing. London: Pearson Education Ltd.
Moore, S. and Murphy, M. (2005) How to be a Student: 100 Great Ideas and Practical Hints for Students Everywhere. UK: Open University Press.
Murray, R. (2005) Writing for Academic Journals. UK: Open University Press.
Murray, R. and Moore, S. (2006) The Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach. Berkshire, UK: Open University Press. 61