1. Defining Motivation
The result of the interaction between the individual and the situation.
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.
Three key elements:
Intensity – how hard a person tries
Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and consistent with, organizational goals
Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort
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2. Framework of Motivation
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3. Motivational Models
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4. Early Theories of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
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5. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Assumptions
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied
Must move in hierarchical order
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Higher Order
Internal
Lower Order
External
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6. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs — Dominance of Physiological Needs
Salf-Actulization Needs Dominant In The Need Structure
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7. A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research.
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
A reworking of Maslow to fit empirical research.
Three groups of core needs:
Existence (Maslow: physiological and safety)
Relatedness (Maslow: social and status)
Growth (Maslow: esteem and self-actualization)
Removed the hierarchical assumption
Can be motivated by all three at once
Popular, but not accurate, theory E G R
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8. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).
Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees
No empirical evidence to support this theory.
Theory X
Workers have little ambition
Dislike work
Avoid responsibility
Theory Y
Workers are self-directed
Enjoy work
Accept responsibility
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9. HERZBERG’S 2 FACTOR THEORY
Frederick Herzberg and his associates conducted a research study based on interviews of 200 engineers and accountants working in 11 different firms in U.S.A
Findings revealed that there are 2 sets of factors which affect satisfaction or dissatisfaction of employees.
1. Dissatisfiers or hygiene factors or maintenance factors
2. Motivational factors or satisfiers
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10. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Key Point: Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites but separate constructs
Hygiene Factors
Motivators
Achievement
Responsibility
Growth
Work Conditions
Salary
Company Policies
Extrinsic and Related to Dissatisfaction
Intrinsic and Related to Satisfaction
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11. Herzberg’s Hygienes and Motivators
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12. Essence of the two-factor Theory
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13. Difference Between Maslow’s and Herzberg’s Motivational Theories
Issue Maslow Herzberg
Type of theory Descriptive Prescriptive
The satisfaction Unsatisfied needs energise Needs cause performance performance relationship behaviour, this behaviour causes performance
Need order Hierarchy of needs No hierarchy
Effect of pay Pay is a motivator if it satisfies Pay is not a motivator
needs
Effect of needs All needs are motivators at various Only some needs are times motivators
View of motivation
Macro view – deals with all aspects Micro view – deals primarily of existence with work related motivation
Worker level Relevant for all workers Probably more relevant to white – collar and
professional workers
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14. Criticisms of Two-Factor Theory
Herzberg says that hygiene factors must be met to remove dissatisfaction. If motivators are given, then satisfaction can occur.
Herzberg is limited by his procedure
Participants had self-serving bias
Reliability of raters questioned
Bias or errors of observation
No overall measure of satisfaction was used
Herzberg assumed, but didn’t research, a strong relationship between satisfaction and productivity
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15. McClelland’s Three Needs Theory
Need for Achievement (nAch)
The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to succeed
Need for Power (nPow)
The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for Affiliation (nAff)
The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
People have varying levels of each of the three needs.
Hard to measure
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16. Performance Predictions for High nAch
People with a high need for achievement are likely to:
Prefer to undertake activities with a 50/50 chance of success, avoiding very low- or high-risk situations
Be motivated in jobs that offer high degree of personal responsibility, feedback, and moderate risk
Not necessarily make good managers – too personal a focus. Most good general managers do NOT have a high nAch
Need high level of nPow and low nAff for managerial success
Good research support, but it is not a very practical theory
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17. Contemporary Theo ries of Motivation
Equity Theory
Expectancy Theory
Goal-Setting Theory
Management by Objectives (MBO)
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18. Adams’ Equity Theory
Employees compare their ratios of outcomes-to- inputs of relevant others.
When ratios are equal: state of equity exists – there is no tension as the situation is considered fair
When ratios are unequal: tension exists due to unfairness
Underrewarded states cause anger
Overrewarded states cause guilt
Tension motivates people to act to bring their situation into equity
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19. Equity Theory’s “Relevant Others”
Can be four different situations:
Self-Inside
The person’s experience in a different job in the same organization
Self-Outside
The person’s experience in a different job in a different organization
Other-Inside
Another individual or group within the organization
Other-Outside
Another individual or group outside of the organization
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20. Reactions to Inequity Employee behaviors to create equity:
Change inputs (slack off)
Change outcomes (increase output)
Distort/change perceptions of self
Distort/change perceptions of others
Choose a different referent person
Leave the field (quit the job)
Propositions relating to inequitable pay:
Paid by time:
Overrewarded employees produce more
Underrewarded employees produce less with low quality
Paid by quality:
Overrewarded employees give higher quality
Underrewarded employees make more of low quality
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21. Justice and Equity Theory
Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice
Fairness of outcome
Procedural Justice
Fairness of outcome process
Interactional Justice
Being treated with dignity and respect
Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace.
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22. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.
Expectancy of performance success
Instrumentality of success in getting reward
Valuation of the reward in employee’s eyes
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23. Implementation: Management by Objectives
MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal- setting.
Goals must be:
Tangible
Verifiable
Measurable
Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization.
Four common ingredients to MBO programs:
Goal specificity
Participative decision making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback
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24. Motivational Theories
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25. Types of Motivation
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26. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
What if the organisations are not ready to unleash the intrinsic motivation of employees?
Use contingent rewards and constructive task feedback for developing the feeling of personal competence and stronger self efficacy
Utilize the insights from spiritual and positive thinking on work in general and organisational behaviour in specific
Encourage more internalization and emotional alignment through managing work culture, socialization and long term rewards

27. Employee Identifica-tion as a bridge between Extrinsic and Intrinsic motivation

28. Applications of Motivation
Motivation by goal setting: Management by objectives (MBO)
MBO is based on the philosophy that the manager and the managed ought to negotiate or collaborate on defining the objectives the employee is to pursue over the next time period.
Reward system for high performance: Behaviour modification
Rewards systems based on the assumptions that people in positions of authority can be taught to use environmental consequences to stimulate and shape the behaviours of people.
Job design affecting work outcomes
Job Rotation
Job Enlargement
Job Enrichment
Job Characteristics Model
Motivation by empowerment
Self Initiated Empowerment
Empowerment by Others
Empowerment by Managers
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29. Job Characteristics Model
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30. Framework of ob Mod
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